Persistence of lactase activity among Northern Europeans: A weighing of evidence for the calcium absorption hypothesis

References

• Ackerknecht , E.H. 1953 . “ Paleopathology ” . In Anthropology Today: An Encyclopedic Inventory Prepared Under the Chairmanship of A.L. Kroeber , 120 – 126 . Chicago and London : University of Chicago Press .
   Google Scholar
• Ala‐Houhala , M. , Parviainen , M.T. , Pyykko , K. and Visakorpi , J.K. 1984 . Serum 25‐hydroxyvitamin D levels in Finnish children aged 2 to 17 years . Acta Paediatr. Scand. , 73 : 232 – 236 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alexandersen , V. 1967 . “ The pathology of the jaws and the temporomandibular joint ” . In Diseases in Antiquity. C.C , Edited by: Brothwell , D. and Sandison , A.T. 551 – 595 . Springfield, Ill. : Thomas .
   Google Scholar
• Ali , R.A.M. and Evans , J.L. 1971 . Body composition in the growing rat as affected by dietary lactose, calcium, buffering capacity and EDTA . J. Anim. Sci. , 33 : 765 – 770 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ali , R.A.M. and Evans , J.L. 1973 . Lactose and calcium metabolism: A review . J. Agric. Univ. Puerto Rico , 57 : 149 – 164 .
   Google Scholar
• Allen , L.H. 1982 . Calcium bioavailability and absorption: A review . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 35 : 783 – 808 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson , E.N. 1988 . The Food of China , New Haven and London : Yale University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Anderson , E.N. Jr. and Anderson , M.L. 1977 . “ Modern China: South ” . In Food in Chinese Culture , Edited by: Chang , K.C. 319 – 382 . New Haven : Yale University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Andrieux , C. and Sacquet , E. 1983 . Effect of microflora and lactose on the absorption of calcium, phosphorus and magnesium in the hindgut of the rat . Reprod. Nutr. Dev. , 23 : 259 – 271 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Andrieux , G. , Sacquet , E. and Gueguen , L. 1982 . Microbial flora in the digestive tract and action of lactose on mineral metabolism . Reprod. Nutr. Dev. , 22 : 387 – 394 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Aoki , K. 1986 . A stochastic model of gene‐culture coevolution suggested by the “culture historical hypothesis” for the evolution of adult lactose absorption in humans . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.SA. , 83 : 2929 – 2933 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aoki , K. 1991 . Time required for gene frequency change in a deterministic model of gene‐culture coevolution, with special reference to the lactose absorption problem . Theor. Popul. Biol. , 40 : 354 – 368 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Armbrecht , H.J. 1987 . Age and the effects of lactose on calcium and phosphorus uptake by rat small intestine . Nutr. Res. , 1 : 1167 – 1177 .
   Google Scholar
• Armbrecht , H.J. 1989 . Effect of age and the milk sugar lactose on calcium absorption by the small intestine . Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. , 249 : 185 – 192 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Armbrecht , H.J. and Wasserman , R.H. 1976 . Enhancement of CA+ + uptake by lactose in the rat small intestine . J. Nutr. , 106 : 1265 – 1271 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arnaud , Sara B. , Matthusen , Mary , Gilkinson , Julianna B. and Goldsmith , Ralph S. 1977 . Components of 25‐hydroxyvitamin D in serum of young children in upper midwestern United States . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 30 : 1082 – 1086 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Atkinson , R.L. , Kratzer , F.H. and Stewart , G.F. 1957 . Lactose in animal and human feeding: A review . J. Dairy Sci. , 40 : 1114 – 1132 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Au , W.Y.W. and Raisz , L.G. 1967 . Restoration of parathyroid responsiveness in vitamin D‐deficient rats by parenteral calcium or dietary lactose . J. Clin. Invest. , 46 : 1572 – 1578 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Avioli , L.V. 1972 . Intestinal absorption of calcium . Arch. Intern. Med. , 129 : 345 – 355 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bachrach , S. , Fisher , J. and Parks , J.S. 1979 . An outbreak of vitamin D deficiency rickets in a susceptible population . Pediatrics , 64 : 871 – 877 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beadle , P.C. 1977 . The epidermal biosynthesis of cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) . Photochem. Photobiol. , 25 : 519 – 527 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Behling , A.R. and Greger , J.L. 1990 . Importance of lactose in yogurt for mineral utilization . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 38 : 200 – 204 .
   Google Scholar
• Bei , L. , Wood , R.J. and Rosenberg , I.H. 1986 . Glucose polymer increases jejunal calcium, magnesium, and zinc absorption in humans . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 44 : 244 – 247 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belton , N.R. 1986 . Rickets—not only the “English disease” . Acta Paediatr. Scand. , 323 (Suppl.) : 68 – 75 .
   Google Scholar
• Bergeim , O. 1926 . Intestinal chemistry. V. Carbohydrates and calcium and phosphorus absorption . J. Biol. Chem. , 70 : 35 – 45 .
   Google Scholar
• Berglund , J. 1986 . The decline of the Norse settlements in Greenland . Arctic Anthropol. , 23 : 109 – 135 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhattacharyya , A.K. 1992 . “ Nutritional rickets in the tropics ” . In Nutritional Triggers for Health and in Disease , Edited by: Simopoulos , A.P. Vol. 67 , 140 – 197 . Karger, Basel : World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics .
   Google Scholar
• Birlouez‐Aragon , I. 1988 . Effect of lactose hydrolysis on calcium absorption during duodenal milk perfusion . Reprod. Nutr. Dev. , 28 : 1465 – 1472 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bodmer , W.F. and Cavalli‐Sforza , L.L. 1976 . Genetics, Evolution, and Man , San Francisco : W.H. Freeman .
   Google Scholar
• Bogucki , P. 1984 . Linear Pottery ceramic sieves and their economic implications . Oxford J. Archaeol. , 3 : 15 – 30 .
   Google Scholar
• Bogucki , P. 1986 . The antiquity of dairying in temperate Europe . Expedition , 28 : 2 51 – 58 .
   Google Scholar
• Bogucki , P. 1989 . “ The exploitation of domestic animals in Neolithic Central Europe ” . In Early Animal Domestication and Its Cultural Context , MASCA Research Papers in Science and Archaeology, Special Suppl. to Vol. 6 Edited by: Crabtree , P.J. , Campana , D. and Ryan , K. 118 – 134 . Philadelphia : MASCA, The University Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania .
   Google Scholar
• Bonner , W.N. 1982 . Seals and Man , Seattle : University of Washington Press .
   Google Scholar
• Brazerol , William F. , McPhee , Andrew J. , Mimouni , Francis , Specker , Bonny L. and Tsang , Reginald C. 1988 . Serial ultraviolet B exposure and serum 25 hydroxyvitamin D response in young adult American blacks and whites: No racial differences . J. Am. Coll. Nutr. , 7 : 111 – 118 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brommage , Robert , Binacua , Claudine , Antille , Simone and Carrié , Anne‐Lise . 1993 . Intestinal calcium absorption in rats is stimulated by dietary lactulose and other resistant sugars . J. Nutr. , 123 : 2186 – 2194 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bronner , Felix , Harris , Robert S. , Maletskos , Constantine J. and Benda , Clemens E. 1954 . Studies of calcium metabolism. Effect of food phytates on calcium uptake in children on low calcium breakfasts . J. Nutr. , 54 : 523 – 542 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brothwell , D.R. 1981 . Digging up Bones. , 3rd Ed. , Ithaca, New York : Cornell University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Buchowski , M.S. and Miller , D.D. 1991 . Lactose, calcium source and age affect calcium bioavailability in rats . J. Nutr. , 121 : 1746 – 1754 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Buckland , P.C. , Amorosi , T. Barlow , L.K. 1996 . Bioarchaeological and climatological evidence for the fate of Norse farmers in medieval Greenland . Antiquity , 70 : 88 – 96 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burland , C. 1918 . An historical case of rickets; being an account of the medical examination of the remains of Princess Elizabeth, daughter of King Charles I, who died at Carisbrook Castle, September 8, 1650 . Practitioner , 100 : 391 – 395 .
   Google Scholar
• Busk , H.E. , Dahlerup , B. , Lytzen , T. , Binder , V. and Gudmand‐Høyer , E. 1975 . The incidence of lactose malabsorption in ulcerative colitis . Scand. J. Gas‐troenterol. , 10 : 263 – 265 .
   Google Scholar
• Cavalli‐Sforza , L.L. 1973 . Analytic review: Some current problems of human population genetics . Am. J. Hum. Genet. , 25 : 82 – 104 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chang , K.‐C. , ed. 1977 . Food in Chinese Culture , New Haven and London : Yale University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Chiu , KM. 1999 . Efficacy of calcium supplements on bone mass in postmeno‐pausal women . The Journals of Gerontology , 54A : M275 – M280 .
   Google Scholar
• Chu , J.‐Y. , Margen , S. and Costa , F.M. 1975 . Studies in calcium metabolism. II. Effects of low calcium and variable protein intake on human calcium metabolism . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 28 : 1028 – 1035 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Clemens , T.L. , Adams , J.S. , Henderson , S.L. and Holick , M.F. 1982 . Increased skin pigment reduces the capacity of the skin to synthesize vitamin D . Lancet , 1 : 74 – 76 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cochet , Bernard , Jung , André , Griessen , Marthe , Bartholdi , Paul , Schaller , Philippe and Donath , Alfred . 1983 . Effects of lactose on intestinal calcium absorption in normal and lactase‐deficient subjects . Gastroenterol. , 84 : 935 – 940 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Condon , John R. , Nassim , J.R. , Millard , F.J.C. , Hilbe , Anne and Stainthorpe , E.M. 1970 . Calcium and phosphorus metabolism in relation to lactose tolerance . Lancet , 1 : 1027 – 1029 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cone , T.E. Jr. 1980 . A rachitic infant painted by Burgkmair 136 years before Dr. Whistler described rickets . Clin. Pediatr. (Phila.) , 19 : 194
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dahlqvist , A. and Lindquist , B. 1971 . Lactose intolerance and protein malnutrition . Acta. Paediatr. Scand. , 60 : 488 – 494 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davies , D.M. 1985 . Calcium metabolism in healthy men deprived of sunlight . Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. , 453 : 21 – 27 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• De Luca , H.F. 1980 . “ Vitamin D ” . In Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease, , 6th Ed. , Edited by: Goodhart , R.S. and Shils , M.E. 160 – 170 . Philadelphia : Lea and Febiger .
   Google Scholar
• Debongnie , J.S. , Newcomer , A.D. , McGill , D.B. and Phillips , S.F. 1979 . Absorption of nutrients in lactase deficiency . Dig. Dis. Sci. , 24 : 225 – 231 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Degerbøl , M. 1963 . “ Prehistoric cattle in Denmark and adjacent areas ” . In Man and Cattle , Royal Anthropological Institute Occasional Paper No. 18 Edited by: Mourant , A.E. and Zeuner , F.E. 69 – 79 . London : Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland .
   Google Scholar
• Dent , C.E. and Stamp , T.C.B. 1977 . “ Vitamin D, rickets, and osteomalacia ” . In Metabolic Bone Disease , Edited by: Avioli , L.V. and Krane , S.M. Vol. 1 , 237 – 305 . N.Y. : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Dent , C.E. , Round , J.M. , Rowe , D.J.F. and Stamp , T.C.B. 1973 . Effect of chapattis and ultraviolet irradiation on nutritional rickets in an Indian immigrant . Lancet , 1 : 1282 – 1284 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Devgun , M.S. , Paterson , C.R. , Johnson , B.E. and Cohen , C. 1981 . Vitamin D nutrition in relation to season and occupation . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 34 : 1501 – 1504 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Draper , H.H. 1977 . The aboriginal Eskimo diet in modern perspective . Am. Anthropol. , 79 : 309 – 316 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drummond , J.C. and Wilbraham , A. 1958 . The Englishman's Food. , New and Revised Edition Jonathan Cape, London
   Google Scholar
• Dunnigan , M.G. , McIntosh , W.B. and Ford , J.A. 1976 . Rickets in Asian immigrants . Lancet , 1 : 1346
   Google Scholar
• Dupuis , Y. 1957 . Lactose et utilization du calcium. II. Étude de l'influence de l'administration de divers taux de lactose sur la rétention calcique . C.R. Séances Soc. Biol. Fil. , 151 : 1831 – 1833 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Durham , W.H. 1991 . Coevolution , Stanford : Stanford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Dwyer , Johanna T. , Dietz , William H. Jr. , Hass , Gerald and Suskind , Robert . 1979 . Risk of nutritional rickets among vegetarian children . Am. J. Dis. Ch. , 133 : 134 – 140 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Eaton , S.B. and Nelson , D.A. 1991 . Calcium in evolutionary perspective . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 54 : 281S – 287S .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Eaton , S.B. and Konner , M. 1985 . Paleolithic nutrition: A consideration of its nature and current implications . N. Engl. J. Med. , 312 : 283 – 289 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edidin , D.V. , Levitsky , L.L. Schey , W. 1980 . Resurgence of nutritional rickets associated with breast‐feeding and special dietary practices . Pediatrics , 65 : 232 – 235 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ekanem , E.E. , Bassey , D.E. and Eyong , M. 1995 . Nutritional rickets in Calabar, Nigeria . Ann. Trop. Paediatr. , 15 : 303 – 306 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elidrissy , A.T.H. 1987 . Vitamin D deficiency rickets in a sunny country: Pathogenesis, clinical picture and management . Ann. Saudi Med. , 7 : 119 – 125 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elliot Smith , G. and Dawson , W.R. 1991 . Egyptian Mummies , London and New York : Kegan Paul International .
   Google Scholar
• El‐Sonbaty , M.R. and Abdul‐Ghaffar , N.U. 1996 . Vitamin D deficiency in veiled Kuwaiti women . Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. , 50 : 315 – 318 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evans , J.L. and Ali , R. 1967 . Calcium utilization and feed efficiency in the growing rat as affected by dietary calcium, buffering capacity, lactose and EDTA . J. Nutr. , 92 : 417 – 424 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feldman , M.W. and Cavalli‐Sforza , L.L. 1989 . “ On the theory of evolution under genetic and cultural transmission with application to the lactose absorption problem ” . In Mathematical Evolutionary Theory , Edited by: Feldman , M.W. 145 – 172 . Princeton : Princeton University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Finch , P.J. , Ang , L. , Colston , K.W. , Nisbet , J. and Maxwell , J.D. 1992b . Blunted seasonal variation in serum 25‐hydroxy vitamin D and increased risk of osteomalacia in vegetarian London Asians . Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. , 46 : 509 – 515 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fischer‐Møller , K. 1942 . The Mediaeval Norse Settlements in Greenland. Anthropological investigations . Meddelelser om Grønland , 89 : 2
   Google Scholar
• Flatz , G. 1976 . Lactose tolerance: Genetics, anthropology, and natural selection , Excerpta Medica International Congress Series No. 411: Human Genetics 386 – 396 .
   Google Scholar
• Flatz , G. 1987 . Genetics of lactose digestion in humans . Adv. Hum. Genet. , 16 : 1 – 77 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flatz , G. and Rotthauwe , H.W. 1973 . Lactose nutrition and natural selection . Lancet , 2 : 76 – 77 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flatz , G. and Rotthauwe , H.W. 1977 . “ The human lactase polymorphism: Physiology and genetics of lactose absorption and malabsorption ” . In Progress in Medical Genetics (n.s.) , Edited by: Steinberg , A.G. , Beam , A.G. , Motulsky , A.G. and Childs , B. Vol. 2 , 205 – 249 . Philadelphia : W.B. Saunders .
   Google Scholar
• Foote , J.A. 1927 . Evidence of rickets prior to 1650 . Am. J. Dis. Ch. , 34 : 443 – 452 .
   Google Scholar
• Ford , J.A. , Colhoun , E.M. , McIntosh , W.B. and Dunnigan , M.G. 1972 . Biochemical response of late rickets and osteomalacia to a chupatty‐free diet . Br. Med. J. , 3 : 446 – 447 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ford , J.A. , McIntosh , W.V. Butterfield , R. 1976 . Clinical and subclinical vitamin D deficiency in Bradford children . Arch. Dis. Child. , 51 : 939 – 943 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Foulks , E.F. 1972 . The Arctic Hysterias of the North Alaska Eskimo , Anthropological Studies, 10 Washington, D.C. : American Anthropological Association .
   Google Scholar
• Foulks , E. and Katz , S.H. 1977 . “ Nutrition, behavior, and culture ” . In Malnutrition, Behavior, and Social Organization , Edited by: Greene , L.S. 219 – 231 . New York, San Francisco, London : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Fournier , P. , Dupuis , Y. and Fournier , A. 1971 . Effect of lactose on the absorption of alkaline earth metals and intestinal lactase activity . Calcium Transport in Biological Systems , 7 : 389 – 391 .
   Google Scholar
• Fournier , P. , Dupuis , Y. and Gambier , J. 1966 . Influence d'une administration continue de lactose sur le poids, l'aspect et la composition des os du rat âgé . C.R. Acad. Sci. (D) (Paris) , 262 : 797 – 800 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gad , F. 1971 . The History of Greenland. I. Earliest Times to 1700 , Montreal : McGill‐Queen's University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Gejvall , N.‐G. 1960 . Westerhus. Medieval Population and Church in the Light of Skeletal Remains , Stockholm : Kungl. Vitterhets Historie och Antikvitets Akademien .
   Google Scholar
• Ghishan , F.K. , Stroop , S. and Meneely , R. 1982 . The effect of lactose on the intestinal absorption of calcium and zinc in the rat during maturation . Pediatr. Res. , 16 : 566 – 568 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gibbs , D. 1994 . Rickets and the crippled child: An historical perspective . J. Roy. Soc. Med. , 87 : 729 – 732 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Glisson , F. , Bate , G. and Regemorter , A. 1651 . A Treatise of Rickets Being a Disease Common to Children Cole, London
   Google Scholar
• Goel , K.M. , Sweet , E.M. , Logan , R.W. , Warren , J.M. , Arneil , G.C. and Shanks , R.A. 1976 . Florid and subclinical rickets among immigrant children in Glasgow . Lancet , 1 : 1141 – 1145 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goulding , Ailsa , Taylor , Rachael W. , Keil , Debbie , Gold , Elspeth , Lewis‐Barned , N.J. and Williams , S.M. 1999 . Lactose malabsorption and rate of bone loss in older women . Age and Ageing , 28 : 175 – 180 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gourvitch , M. 1966 . Effets d'une ingestion prolongée de lactose sur les os longs du rat. Étude histologique . C.R. Acad. Sci. (D) (Paris) , 262 : 801 – 804 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Greger , J.L. , Krzykowski , Catherine E. , Khazen , Reem R. and Krashoc , Connie L. 1987 . Mineral utilization by rats fed various commercially available calcium supplements or milk . J. Nutr. , 117 : 717 – 724 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Griessen , M. , Infante , F. , Speich , P.V. , Bartholdi , P. , Cochet , B. and Courvoisier , B. 1986 . Effect of absorbable and unabsorbable sugars on intestinal calcium absorption in humanfs] . Calcif. Tiss. Int. , 39 (Suppl.) : A128
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Griessen , Marthe , Cochet , Bernard Infante , Francisco . 1989 . Calcium absorption from milk in lactase‐deficient subjects . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 49 : 377 – 384 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Griffiths , P. and Fairney , A. 1988 . Vitamin D metabolism in polar vertebrates . Comp. Biochem. Physiol. B Biochem. , 91 : 511 – 516 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Groen , J.J. , Eshchar , J. , Ben‐Ishay , D. , Alkan , W.J. and Assa , B.I. Ben . 1965 . Osteomalacia among the Bedouin of the Negev Desert . Arch. Intern. Med. , 116 : 195 – 204 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gudmand‐Høyer , E. 1994 . The clinical significance of disaccharide mal‐digestion . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 59 (Suppl. 3) : 735S – 741S .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gudmand‐Höyer , E. , Dahlqvist , A. and Jarnum , S. 1969 . Specific small‐intestinal lactase deficiency in adults . Scand. J. Gastroenterol. , 4 : 377 – 386 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gupta , S. and Kawatra , B.L. 1992 . Effect of cereal‐legume chapati diets on absorption and retention of calcium . Plant Foods Hum. Nutr. , 42 : 165 – 173 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Guy , R.A. 1923 . The history of cod liver oil as a remedy . Amer. J. Dis. Ch. , 26 : 112 – 116 .
   Google Scholar
• Haddad , J.G. and Chyu , K.J. 1971 . Competitive protein‐bonding radioassay for 25‐hydroxycholecalciferol . J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. , 33 : 992 – 995 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haddad , J.G. Jr. and Hahn , T.J. 1973 . Natural and synthetic sources of circulating 25‐hydroxyvitamin D in man . Nature , 244 : 515 – 517 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hämäläinen , M.M. , Knuuttila , M. , Svanberg , M. and Koskinen , T. 1990 . Comparison of the effect of gluconate, lactose, and xylitol on bone recalcification in calcium‐deficient rats . Bone , 11 : 429 – 438 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hansen , F.C.C. 1924 . Anthropologia medico‐historica Groenlandiae antiquae I. Herjolfsnes . Meddelelser om Grønland , 67 : 3
   Google Scholar
• Harris , M. 1985 . Good to Eat , New York : Simon and Schuster .
   Google Scholar
• Harrison , H.E. 1966 . The disappearance of rickets . Am. J. Public Health , 56 : 734 – 737 .
   Google Scholar
• Henderson , J.B. , Dunnigan , M.G. , McIntosh , W.B. , Abdul‐Motaal , A.A. , Gettinby , G. and Glekin , B.M. 1987 . The importance of limited exposure to ultraviolet radiation and dietary factors in the aetiology of Asian rickets: A risk‐factor model . Q. J. Med. , 63 : 413 – 425 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Henderson , Janet B. , Dunnigan , Matthew G. , McIntosh , William B. , Motaal , A. Abdul and Hole , David . 1990 . Asian osteomalacia is determined by dietary factors when exposure to ultraviolet radiation is restricted: A risk factor model . Q. J. Med. , 76 : 923 – 933 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hess , A.F. 1922 . Newer aspects of the rickets problem . JAMA. , 78 : 1177 – 1183 .
   Google Scholar
• Hess , A.F. 1929 . Rickets Including Osteomalacia and Tetany , Philadelphia : Lea and Febiger .
   Google Scholar
• Heston , L.L. and Gottesman , I.I. 1973 . “ The evolution of lactose tolerance ” . In Summary of the Conference on Lactose and Milk Intolerance. Washington, D.C., March 13, 1972 , DHEW Publication No. (OCD) 73–119 Edited by: Gottesman , I.I. and Heston , L.L. 29 – 30 . Washington, D.C. : Office of Child Development, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare .
   Google Scholar
• Hitchins , A.D. , Wong , N.P. and McDonough , F.E. 1987 . Effects of dietary lactose on serum cholesterol, triglyceride, and calcium levels and on selected serum and digestive enzyme activities in the rat . Nutr. Rep. Int. , 36 : 773 – 779 .
   Google Scholar
• Hoegerman , S.F. and Schenck , R.A. 1989 . Evolution of lactase persistence . Lancet , 1 : 493
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Holden , C. and Mace , R. 1997 . Phylogenetic analysis of the evolution of lactose digestion in adults . Hum. Biol. , 69 : 605 – 628 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holdsworth , M. Diane , Dattani , Jayshree T. , Davies , Louise and MacFarlane , D. 1984 . Factors contributing to vitamin D status near retirement age . Hum. Nutr. Clin. Nutr. , 38C : 139 – 149 .
   Google Scholar
• Holick , M.F. 1985 . The photobiology of vitamin D and its consequences for humans . Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. , 453 : 1 – 13 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holick , M.F. 1990a . The use and interpretation of assays for vitamin D and its metabolites . J. Nutr. , 120 : 1464 – 1469 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holick , M.F. 1990b . “ Vitamin D and the skin: Photobiology, physiology and therapeutic efficacy for psoriasis ” . In Bone and Mineral Research , Edited by: Heersche , J.N.M. and Kanis , J.A. Vol. 7 , 313 – 366 . Amsterdam : Elsevier .
   Google Scholar
• Holick , M.F. 1992 . “ Vitamin D3 and sunlight: An intimate beneficial relationship ” . In Biologic Effects of Light , Edited by: Holick , M.F. and Kligman , A.M. 11 – 33 . Berlin, New York : W. de Gruyter .
   Google Scholar
• Holick , M.F. 1994 . “ Sunlight, vitamin D, and human health ” . In Biologic Effects of Light 1993 , Edited by: Jung , E.G. and Holick , M.F. 3 – 15 . Berlin, New York : W. de Gruyter .
   Google Scholar
• Holick , M.F. 1995 . Environmental factors that influence the cutaneous production of vitamin . D. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 61 (Suppl.) : 638S – 645S .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Holick , M.F. 1996 . “ The role of sunlight in providing vitamin D for bone health ” . In Biologic Effects of Light 1995 , Edited by: Holick , M.F. and Jung , E.G. 4 – 12 . Berlin, New York : W. de Gruyter .
   Google Scholar
• Holick , M.F. , MacLaughlin , J.A. and Doppelt , S.H. 1981 . Regulation of cutaneous previtamin D3 photosynthesis in man: Skin pigment is not an essential regulator . Science , 211 : 590 – 593 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holmes , A.M. , Enoch , B.A. , Taylor , J.L. and Jones , M.E. 1973 . Occult rickets and osteomalacia amongst the Asian immigrant population . Q. J. Med. , 42 : 125 – 149 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Honkanen , R. , Pulkkinen , P. , Järvinen , R. , Kröger , H. , Lindstedt , K. , Tuppurainen , M. and Uusitupa , M. 1996 . Does lactose intolerance predispose to low bone density? A population‐based study of perimenopausal Finnish women . Bone , 19 : 23 – 28 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Horowitz , Michael , Wishart , Judith , Mundy , Linda and Nordin , B.E. Christopher . 1987 . Lactose and calcium absorption in postmenopausal osteoporosis . Arch. Intern. Med. , 147 : 534 – 536 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Høygaard , A. 1941 . “ Studies on the Nutrition and Physio‐pathology of Eskimos. Undertaken at Angmagssalik, East Greenland 1936–37 ” . In Shifter utgitt av Det Norske Videnskaps‐Akademi i Oslo, I. Matematisk‐Naturvidenskapelig Klasse Oslo 1940, No. 9.
   Google Scholar
• Huss‐Ashmore , R. , Goodman , A.H. and Armelagos , G.J. 1982 . “ Nutritional inference from paleopathology ” . In Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory , Edited by: Schiffer , M.B. Vol. 5 , 395 – 474 . New York : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Ingstad , H. 1966 . Land Under the Pole Star , New York : St. Martin's Press .
   Google Scholar
• Isager , K. 1936 . Skeletfundene ved Øm Kloster , Copenhagen : Levin and Munksgaard .
   Google Scholar
• Ivanhoe , F. 1970 . Was Virchow right about Neanderthal? . Nature , 227 : 577 – 579 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janssens , P.A. 1970 . Palaeopathology , London : John Baker .
   Google Scholar
• Jeans , P.C. 1950 . Vitamin . D. JAMA. , 143 : 177 – 181 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jeppesen , B.B. and Harvald , B. 1983 . Serum calcium in Greenland Eskimos . Acta. Med. Scand. , 214 : 99 – 101 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson , F.S. , Mo , T. and Green , A.E.S. 1976 . Average latitudinal variation in ultraviolet radiation at the earth's surface . Photochem. Photobiol. , 23 : 179 – 188 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Johnson , John D. , Kretchmer , Norman and Simoons , Frederick J. 1974 . “ Lactose malabsorption: Its biology and history ” . In Advances in Pedriatics , Edited by: Schulman , Irving . Vol. 21 , 197 – 237 . Chicago : Year Book Medical Publishers .
   Google Scholar
• Johnson , N.E. , Alcantara , E.N. and Linkswiler , H. 1970 . Effect of level of protein intake on urinary and fecal calcium and calcium retention of young adult males . J. Nutr. , 100 : 1425 – 1430 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kashimura , J. , Kimura , M. and Itokawa , Y. 1996 . The effects of isomaltose, isomalt, and isomaltulose‐based oligomers on mineral absorption and retention . Biol. Trace Elem. Res. , 54 : 239 – 250 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keiver , K.M. , Draper , H.H. and Ronald , K. 1988 . Vitamin D metabolism in the hooded seal (Cystophora cristata) . J. Nutr. , 118 : 332 – 341 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kelly , Susan E. , Chawla‐Singh , Kuljit , Sellin , Joseph H. , Yasillo , Nicholas J. and Rosenberg , Irwin H. 1984 . Effect of meal composition on calcium absorption: Enhancing effect of carbohydrate polymers . Gastroenterol. , 87 : 596 – 600 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knowles , J.B. , Wood , R.J. and Rosenberg , I.H. 1988 . Response of fractional calcium absorption in women to various coadminstered oral glucose doses . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 48 : 1471 – 1474 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kobayashi , Akio , Kawai , Sakae , Ohbe , Yoshiro and Nagashima , Yoshiko . 1975 . Effects of dietary lactose and a lactase preparation on the intestinal absorption of calcium and magnesium in normal infants . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 28 : 681 – 683 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kocián , J. , Skála , I. and Bakos , K. 1973 . Calcium absorption from milk and lactose‐free milk in healthy subjects with patients with lactose intolerance . Digestion , 9 : 317 – 324 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kung , E.C. , Bryson , R.A. and Lenschow , D.H. 1964 . Study of a continental surface albedo on the basis of flight measurements and structure of the earth's surface cover over North America . Monthly Weather Review , 92 : 543 – 564 .
   Google Scholar
• Kurth , G. and Röhrer‐Ertl , O. 1981 . “ On the anthropology of the Mesolithic to Chalcolithic human remains from the Tell es‐Sultan in Jericho, Jordan ” . In Text of Kathleen Kenyon, Excavations at Jericho , Vol. 3 , 407 – 499 . London : British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem .
   Google Scholar
• Ladizesky , M. , Lu , Z. , Oliveri , B. , San Roman , N. , Diaz , S. , Holick , M.F. and Mautalen , C. 1995 . Solar ultraviolet B radiation and photoproduction of vitamin D3 in central and southern areas of Argentina . J. Bone Miner. Res. , 10 : 545 – 549 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lamberg‐Allardt , C. , Kirjarinta , M. and Dessypris , A.G. 1983 . Serum 25‐hydroxy‐vitamin D, parathyroid hormone and calcium levels in adult inhabitants above the Arctic Circle in northern Finland . Ann. Clin. Res. , 15 : 142 – 145 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Larsen , C.S. 1987 . “ Bioarchaeological interpretations of subsistence economy and behavior from human skeletal remains ” . In Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory , Edited by: Schiffer , M.B. Vol. 10 , 339 – 445 . San Diego, New York : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Lazenby , R.A. and McCormack , P. 1985 . Salmon and malnutrition on the Northwest Coast . Curr. Anthropol. , 26 : 379 – 384 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee , David B.N. , Hardwick , Laurie L. , Hu , Ming‐Shu and Jamgotchian , Nora . 1990 . Vitamin D‐independent regulation of calcium and phosphate absorption . Miner. Electrolyte Metab. , 16 : 167 – 173 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lee , M.‐F. , Russell , R.M , Montgomery , R.K and Krasinski , S.D. 1997 . Total intestinal lactase and sucrase activities are reduced in aged rats . J. Nutr. , 127 : 1382 – 1387 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee , T. 1940 . Historical notes on some vitamin deficiency diseases in China . Chin. Med. J. , 58 : 314 – 323 .
   Google Scholar
• Lee , T. 1967 . “ Historical notes on some vitamin deficiency diseases in China ” . In Diseases in Antiquity , Edited by: Brothwell , D. and Sandison , A.T. 417 – 422 . Springfield, III : C.C. Thomas .
   Google Scholar
• Lengemann , F.W. , Wasserman , R.H. and Comar , C.L. 1959 . Studies on the enhancement of radiocalcium and radiostrontium absorption by lactose in the rat . J. Nutr. , 68 : 443 – 456 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lester , Eva , Skinner , R.K., , Foo , A.Y. , Lund , B. and Sørensen , O.H. 1980 . Serum 25‐hydroxyvitamin D levels and vitamin D intake in healthy young adults in Britain and Denmark . Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Invest. , 40 : 145 – 150 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lindstedt , H. 1939 . Food consumption habits in China . Int. Rev. Agric. , 30 : 363E – 389E .
   Google Scholar
• Linkswiler , H.M. , Joyce , C.L. and Anand , R. 1974 . Calcium retention of young adult males as affected by level of protein and of calcium intake . Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci. , 36 : 333 – 340 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lo , C.W. , Paris , P.W. and Holick , M.F. 1986 . Indian and Pakistani immigrants have the same capacity as Caucasians to produce vitamin D in response to ultraviolet irradiation . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 44 : 683 – 685 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lomax , E. 1993 . “ Diseases of infancy and early childhood ” . In The Cambridge World History of Human Disease , Edited by: Kiple , K.P. 147 – 157 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Loomis , W.F. 1967 . Skin‐pigment regulation of vitamin‐D biosynthesis in man . Science , 157 : 501 – 506 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loomis , W.F. 1970 . Rickets . Sci. Am. , 223 (6) December : 77 – 91 .
   Google Scholar
• Lowenthal , M.N. and Shany , S. 1994 . Osteomalacia in Bedouin women of the Negev . Isr. J. Med. Sci. , 30 : 520 – 523 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lu , G.‐D. and Needham , J. 1976 . Records of diseases in ancient China . Am. J. Chin. Med. , 4 : 3 – 16 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lu , Z. , Chen , T.C. Kline , L. 1992 . “ Photosynthesis of previtamin D3 in cities around the world ” . In Biologic Effects of Light , Edited by: Holick , M.F. and Kligman , A.M. 48 – 52 . Berlin, New York : W. de Gruyter .
   Google Scholar
• Lund , B. and Sørensen , O.H. 1979 . Measurement of 25‐hydroxyvitamin D in serum and its relation to sunshine, age and vitamin D intake in the Danish population . Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Invest. , 39 : 23 – 30 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lynnerup , N. 1995 . The Greenland Norse. A biological anthropological study . Danish Med. Bull. , 42 : 203
   Google Scholar
• Lynnerup , N. 1996 . Paleodemography of the Greenland Norse . Arctic Anthropol. , 33 : 122 – 136 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lynnerup , N. 1998 . The Greenland Norse: A Biological‐Anthropological Study , Meddelelser om Grønland, Man & Society 24 Copenhagen : Commission for Scientific Research in Greenland .
   Google Scholar
• Lynnerup , N. , Arneborg , J. and Hart Hansen , J.P. 1991 . Norse anthropological remains . Polar Record , 27 : 132 – 133 .
   Google Scholar
• Mainguet , Paul , Faille , Isabelle , Destrebecq , Laurence , Devogelaer , Jean‐Pierre and Deuxchaisnes , Charles Nagant de . 1991 . Lactose intolerance, calcium intake, and osteopenia . Lancet , 338 : 1156 – 1157 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mariam , T.W. and Sterky , G. 1973 . Severe rickets in infancy and childhood in Ethiopia . Trop. Pediatr. , 82 : 876 – 878 .
   Google Scholar
• Markestad , T. 1983 . Effect of season and vitamin D supplementation on plasma concentrations of 25‐hydroxyvitamin D in Norwegian infants . Acta Paediatr. Scand. , 72 : 817 – 821 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Markestad , T. , Elzouki , A. , Legnain , M. , Ulstein , M. and Aksnes , L. 1984 . Serum concentrations of vitamin D metabolites in maternal and umbilical cord blood of Libyan and Norwegian women . Hum. Nutr. Clin. Nutr. , 38C : 55 – 62 .
   Google Scholar
• Matsuoka , Lois Y. , Wortsman , Jacobo , Haddad , John G. and Hollis , Bruce W. 1990 . Skin types and epidermal photosynthesis of vitamin D3 . J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. , 23 : 525 – 526 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Matsuoka , Lois Y. , Wortsman , Jacobo , Haddad , John G. , Kolm , Paul and Hollis , Bruce W. 1991 . Racial pigmentation and the cutaneous synthesis of vitamin . D. Arch. Dermatol. , 127 : 536 – 538 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mawer , E. Barbara , Backhouse , Joan , Holman , Cariene A. , Lumb , G.A. and Stanbury , S.W. 1972 . The distribution and storage of vitamin D and its metabolites in human tissues . Clin. Sci. , 43 : 413 – 431 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maxwell , J.P. 1930 . Further studies in osteomalacia . Proc. Roy. Soc. Med. , 23 : 639 – 652 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mayr , E. and Campbell , B. 1971 . Was Virchow right about Neanderthal? . Science , 229 : 253 – 254 .
   Google Scholar
• Mazess , R.B. and Mather , W. 1974 . Bone mineral content of North Alaskan Eskimos . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 27 : 916 – 925 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mazess , R.B. and Mather , W. 1975 . Bone mineral content in Canadian Eskimos . Hum. Biol. , 4 : 1 45 – 63 .
   Google Scholar
• McCance , R.A. and Widdowson , E.M. 1960 . The Composition of Foods , Third Revised Edition , Medical Research Council Special Report Series, 297 London : Her Majesty's Stationery Office .
   Google Scholar
• McCracken , R.D. 1971 . Lactase deficiency: An example of dietary evolution . Curr. Anthropol. , 12 : 479 – 517 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGovern , T.H. 1991 . Climate, correlation, and causation in Norse Greenland . Arctic Anthropol , 28 (2) : 77 – 100 .
   Google Scholar
• McGovern , Thomas H. and Perdikaris , Sophia . 2000 . The Vikings’ silent saga . Natural History , 109 (8) October : 50 – 57 .
   Google Scholar
• Miller , S.C. , Miller , M.A. and Omura , T.H. 1988 . Dietary lactose improves endochondral growth and bone development and mineralization in rats fed a vitamin D‐deficient diet . J. Nutr. , 118 : 72 – 77 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mimouni , F. 1996 . Etiology of nutritional rickets: Geographic variations . J. Pediatr. , 128 : 600 – 601 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Møller‐Christensen , V. 1958 . Bogen om Aebelholt kloster , Copenhagen : Dansk Videnskabs Forlag .
   Google Scholar
• Moodie , R.L. 1923 . Paleopathology , Urbana : University of Illinois Press .
   Google Scholar
• Moodie , R.L. 1930 . A suggestion of rickets in the Pleistocene . Am. J. Surg. , 10 : 162 – 163 .
   Google Scholar
• Moser , R.L. , Peo , E.R. Jr. , Crenshaw , T.D. and Cunningham , P.J. 1980 . Effect of dietary lactose on gain, feed conversion, blood, bone and intestinal parameters in postweaning rats and swine . J. Anim. Sci. , 51 : 89 – 99 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mozolowski , W. 1939 . Jedrzej Sniadecki (1768–1838) on the cure of rickets . Nature , 143 : 121
   Google Scholar
• Mughal , M.Z. , Salama , H. , Greenaway , T. , Laing , I. and Mawer , E.B. 1999 . Florid rickets associated with prolonged breast feeding without vitamin D supplementation . Br. Med. J. , 318 : 39 – 40 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murray , F.G. 1934 . Pigmentation, sunlight, and nutritional disease . Am. Anthropol , 36 : 438 – 445 .
   Google Scholar
• Neer , R.M. 1985 . Environmental light: Effects on vitamin D synthesis and calcium metabolism in humans . Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. , 453 : 14 – 20 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Neer , R.M. , Davis , T.R.A. Walcott , A. 1971 . Stimulation by artificial lighting of calcium absorption in elderly human subjects . Nature , 229 : 255 – 257 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nemeskéri , J. and Harsányi , L. 1959 . Die Bedeutung paläopathologisches Untersuchungen für die historische Anthropologie . Homo , 10 : 203 – 226 .
   Google Scholar
• Nielsen , H.A. 1911 . Yderligere Bidrag til Danmarks Stenaldersfolks Anthropologi . Aarboger for nordisk oldkyndighed og historie , 1 : 81 – 205 . 3rd Series,
   Google Scholar
• Nørlund , P. 1924 . Buried Norsemen at Hevjolfsnes . Meddelelserom Grönland , 67 : 1
   Google Scholar
• Nørlund , P. 1936 . Viking Settlers in Greenland and Their Descendants during Five Hundred Years , London : Cambridge University Press . G.E.C. Gads Forlag, Copenhagen.
   Google Scholar
• Norman , D.A. , Morawski , S.G. and Fordtran , J.S. 1980 . Influence of glucose, fructose and water movement on calcium absorption in the jejunum . Gastroenterol. , 78 : 22 – 25 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oginni , L.M. , Worsfold , M. , Oyelami , O.A. , Sharp , C.A. , Powell , D.E. and Davie , M.W.J. 1996a . Etiology of rickets in Nigerian children . J. Pediatr. , 128 : 692 – 694 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oginni , L.M. , Worsfold , M. , Sharp , C.A. and Davie , M.W.J. 1996b . Reply [to L.A. Barness, Rickets: The chicken or the egg!] . J. Pediatr. , 129 : 941 – 942 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Oke , O.L. 1972 . Rickets in developing countries . World Rev. Nutr. Diet. , 15 : 86 – 103 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Okonofua , F. , Gill , D.S. , Alabi , Z.O. , Thomas , M. , Bell , J.L. and Dandona , P. 1991 . Rickets in Nigerian children: A consequence of calcium malnutrition . Metabolism , 40 : 209 – 213 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oliveri , M.B. , Mautalen , C. , Bustamante , L. and García , V. Gómez . 1994 . Serum levels of 25‐hydroxyvitamin D in a year of residence on the Antarctic continent . Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. , 48 : 397 – 401 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Owen , I. 1889 . Geographical distribution of rickets, acute and subacute rheumatism, chorea, cancer and urinary calculus in the British Islands . Br. Med. J. , 1 : 113 – 116 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Palm , T.A. 1890 . The geographical distribution and aetiology of rickets . Practitioner , 45 : 270 – 279 . 321 – 342 .
   Google Scholar
• Pansu , D. Effect of lactose on calcium absorption in animals and man . Paper presented at a conference on Physiology and Genetics of Lactose Malabsorption . May 9 and 10 1980 , Bad Harzburg, Germany.
   Google Scholar
• Pansu , D. and Chapuy , M.C. 1970 . Calcium absorption enhanced by lactose and xylose . Cale. Tiss. Res. , 4 (Suppl.) : 155 – 156 .
   Google Scholar
• Pansu , D. , Bellaton , C. and Bronner , F. 1979 . Effect of lactose on duodenal calcium‐binding protein and calcium absorption . J. Nutr. , 109 : 508 – 512 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Passmore , R. , Nicol , B.M. , Narayana Rao , M. , Beaton , G.H. and DeMaeyer , E.M. 1974 . Handbook on Human Nutritional Requirements , Geneva : World Health Organization .
   Google Scholar
• Pettifor , J.M. , Moodley , G.P. , Hough , F.S. , Koch , H. , Chen , T. , Lu , Z. and Holick , M.F. 1996 . The effect of season and latitude on in vitro vitamin D formation by sunlight in South Africa . S. Afr. Med. J. , 86 : 1270 – 1272 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pietrek , J. , Preece , M.A. , Windo , J. , O'Riordan , J.L.H. , Dunnigan , M.G. , McIntosh , W.B. and Ford , J.A. 1976 . Prevention of vitamin‐D deficiency in Asians . Lancet , 1 : 1145 – 1148 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plato . 1926 . Laws , Heinemann, London : Loeb Classical Library . Putnam, New York.
   Google Scholar
• Poskitt , E.M.E. , Cole , T.J. and Lawson , D.E.M. 1979 . Diet, sunlight and 25‐hydroxy vitamin D in healthy children and adults . Br. Med. J. , 1 : 221 – 223 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pov'ysil , C. and Vlcek , E. 1992 . [Could the Czech King Ladislav Pohrobek have had hypophosphatemic osteomalacia caused by a neoplastic disease?] . Cas. Lek. Cesk. , 131 : 339 – 341 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Preece , M.A. , Tomlinson , S. Ribot , C.A. 1975 . Studies of vitamin D deficiency in man . Q. J. Med. , 176 : 575 – 589 .
   Google Scholar
• Pringle , H. 1997 . Death in Norse Greenland . Science , 275 : 924 – 926 .
   Google Scholar
• Pruner‐Bey , J.E. 1875 . “ An account of the human bones found in the cave of Cro‐Magnon in Dordogne ” . In Reliquiae aquitanicae , Edited by: Lartet , E. and Christy , H. 73 – 92 . London : Williams and Norgate . J.B. Ballière et fils, Paris; F.A. Brockhaus, Leipzig,
   Google Scholar
• Recker , Robert R. , Bammi , Aarti , Barger‐Lux , M. Janet and Heaney , Robert P. 1988 . Calcium absorbability from milk products, an imitation milk and calcium carbonate . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 47 : 93 – 95 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reinhold , J.G. 1971 . High phytate content of rural Iranian bread: A possible cause of human zinc deficiency . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 24 : 1204 – 1206 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reinhold , J.G. 1976 . Rickets in Asian immigrants . Lancet , 2 : 1132 – 1133 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reinhold , John G. , Nasr , Khosrow , Lahimgarzadeh , A. and Hedayati , Hadi . 1973 . Effects of purified phytate and phytate‐rich bread upon metabolism of zinc, calcium, phosphorus and nitrogen in man . Lancet , 1 : 283 – 288 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riedman , M. 1990 . The Pinnipeds , Berkeley, Los Angeles, Oxford : University of California Press .
   Google Scholar
• Robertson , Iris , Ford , J.A. , McIntosh , W.B. and Dunnigan , M.G. 1981 . The role of cereals in the aetiology of nutritional rickets: The lesson of the Irish National Nutrition Survey 1943–48 . Br. J. Nutr. , 45 : 17 – 22 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Robertson , W.G. , Heyburn , P.J. , Peacock , M. , Hanes , F.A. and Swaminathan , R. 1979 . The effect of high animal protein intake on the risk of calcium‐stone formation in the urinary tract . Clin. Sci. , 57 : 285 – 288 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robins , A.H. 1991 . Biological Perspectives on Human Pigmentation , Cambridge Studies in Biological Anthropology, 7 Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Rosenstreich , S.J. , Rich , C. and Volwiler , W. 1971 . Deposition in and release of vitamin D3 from body fat: Evidence for a storage site in the rat . J. Clin. Invest. , 50 : 679 – 687 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rowling , J.T. 1967 . “ Paraplegia ” . In Diseases in Antiquity , Edited by: Brothwell , D. and Sandison , A.T. 272 – 278 . Springfield, III : C.C. Thomas .
   Google Scholar
• Rudolf , M. , Arulanantham , K. and Greenstein , R.M. 1980 . Unsuspected nutritional rickets . Pediatrics , 66 : 72 – 76 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sabban , F. 1986 . Un savoir‐faire oublié: le travail du lait en Chine ancienne . Zinbun: Memoirs of the Research Institute for Humanistic Studies, Kyoto University , 21 : 31 – 65 .
   Google Scholar
• Sahi , T. 1974 . Lactose malabsorption in Finnish‐speaking and Swedish‐speaking populations in Finland . Scand. J. Gastroenterol. , 9 : 303 – 308 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sahi , T. 1978 . Intestinal lactase polymorphisms and dairy foods . Hum. Genet. , : 115 – 123 .
   Google Scholar
• Sahi , T. 1989 . “ Epidemiologic aspects of gastrointestinal diseases with special reference to hypolactasia in Skolt Lapps ” . In Actual Problems of Gastroenterology 112 – 128 . Tartu, , Finland
   Google Scholar
• Sahi , Timo , Eriksson , A.W. , Isokoski , M. and Kirjarinta , M. 1976 . “ Isolated adult‐type lactose malabsorption in Finnish Lapps ” . In Circumpolar Health , Edited by: Shepherd , R.J. and Itoh , S. 145 – 149 . Toronto and Buffalo : University of Toronto Press .
   Google Scholar
• Sakellaridis , M. 1979 . The Economic Exploitation of the Swiss Area in the Mesolithic and Neolithic Periods , BAR International Series, 67. British Archaeological Reports Oxford
   Google Scholar
• Samuelson , G. 1971 . An epidemiological study of child health and nutrition in a northern Swedish county. I. Food consumption survey . Acta. Paediatr. Scand. , : 5 – 14 .
   Google Scholar
• Sandison , A.T. and Wells , C. 1967 . “ Diseases of the reproductive system ” . In Diseases in Antiquity , Edited by: Brothwell , D. and Sandison , A.T. 498 – 520 . Springfield, Ill. : C.C. Thomas .
   Google Scholar
• Sauer , CO. 1968 . Northern Mists , Berkeley and Los Angeles : University of California Press .
   Google Scholar
• Schaafsma , G. and Visser , R. 1980 . Nutritional interrelationships between calcium, phosphorus and lactose in rats . J. Nutr. , 110 : 1101 – 1111 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schaafsma , G. , Visser , W.J. , Dekker , P.R. and van Schaik , M. 1988 . Effect of dietary calcium supplementation with lactose on bone in vitamin D‐deficient rats . Bone , 8 : 357 – 362 .
   Google Scholar
• Schapira , Daniel , Izhak , Ofer Ben , Nachtigal , Alicia , Burstein , Amira , Shalom , Rachel Bar , Shagrawi , Ibrahim and Best , Lael Anson . 1995 . Tumor‐induced osteomalacia . Semin. Arthritis Rheum. , 25 ( 1 ) : 1 – 35 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Scheffer , V.B. 1958 . Seals, Sea Lions and Walruses , Stanford : Stanford University Press . Oxford University Press, London.
   Google Scholar
• Schuette , S.A. , Knowles , J.B. and Ford , H.E. 1989 . Effect of lactose or its component sugars on jejunal calcium absorption in adult man . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 50 : 1084 – 1087 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schuette , S.A. , Yasillo , N.J. and Thompson , C.M. 1991 . The effect of carbohydrates in milk on the absorption of calcium by postmenopausal women . J. Am. Coll. Nutrition , 10 : 132 – 139 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Seaver , K.A. 1996 . The Frozen Echo , Stanford : Stanford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Shany , S. , Hirsh , J. and Berlyne , G.M. 1976 . 25‐Hydroxycholecalciferol levels in Bedouins in the Negev . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 29 : 1104 – 1107 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sheikh , Mudassir Sibtain , Ana , Carol A. Santa , Nicar , Michael J. , Schiller , Lawrence R. and Fordtran , John S. 1987 . Gastrointestinal absorption of calcium from milk and calcium salts . N. Engl. J. Med. , 317 : 532 – 536 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sherratt , A. 1983 . The secondary exploitation of animals in the Old World . World Archaeol. , 15 : 90 – 104 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shuster , Sam , Chadwick , Lawrence , Afacan , A.S. and Robertson , Maura D. 1981 . Serum 25‐hydroxy vitamin D in surface and underground coalminers . Br. Med. J. , 283 : 106
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sigerist , H.E. 1951–1961 . A History of Medicine , 2 vols. , New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Simoons , F.J. 1970 . Primary adult lactose intolerance and the milking habit: A problem in biologic and cultural interrelations. II. A culture historical hypothesis . Am. J. Dig. Dis. , 15 : 695 – 710 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Simoons , F.J. 1991 . Food in China: A Cultural and Historical Inquiry , Boca Raton, Ann Arbor, Boston : CRC Press .
   Google Scholar
• Slemenda , Charles W. , Christian , Joe C. , Hui , Siu , Fitzgerald , Joseph and Johnston , C. Conrad Jr. 1991 . No evidence for an effect of lactase deficiency on bone mass in pre‐ or postmenopausal women . J. Bone Miner. Res. , 6 : 1367 – 1371 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Smith , P. , Bloom , R.A. and Berkowitz , J. 1984 . Diachronic trends in humeral cortical thickness of Near Eastern populations . J. Hum. Evol. , 13 : 603 – 611 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith , R. 1990 . Asian rickets and osteomalacia . Q. J. Med. , 76 : 899 – 901 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Smith , Theresa M. , Kolars , Joseph C. , Savaiano , Dennis A. and Levitt , Michael D. 1985 . Absorption of calcium from milk and yogurt . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 42 : 1197 – 1200 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soranus . 1956 . Gynecology. Trans, as Soranus’ Gynecology , Edited by: Temkin , O. Baltimore : Johns Hopkins Press .
   Google Scholar
• Specker , B.L. 1994 . Do North American women need supplemental vitamin D during pregnancy or lactation? . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 59 : 484S – 491S .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Specker , Bonny L. , Valanis , Barbara , Hertzberg , Vicki , Edwards , Neil and Tsang , Reginald C. 1985 . Sunshine exposure and serum 25‐hydroxyvitamin D concentrations in exclusively breast‐fed infants . J. Pediatr. , 107 : 372 – 376 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stamp , T.C.B. 1975 . Factors in human vitamin D nutrition and in the production and cure of classical rickets . Proc. Nutr. Soc. , 34 : 119 – 130 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stamp , T.C.B. and Round , J.M. 1974 . Seasonal changes in human plasma levels of 25‐hydroxyvitamin D . Nature , 247 : 563 – 565 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stathos , Theodore H. , Shulman , Robert J. , Schanler , Richard J. and Abrams , Steven A. 1996 . Effect of carbohydrates on calcium absorption in premature infants . Pediatr. Res. , 39 : 666 – 670 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steinbock , R.T. 1976 . Paleopathological Diagnosis and Interpretation , Springfield, Ill. : C.C. Thomas .
   Google Scholar
• Steinbock , R.T. 1993 . “ Rickets and osteomalacia ” . In The Cambridge World History of Human Disease , Edited by: Kiple , K.F. 978 – 980 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Stephen , J.M.L. 1975 . Epidemiological and dietary aspects of rickets and osteomalacia . Proc. Nutr. Soc. , 34 : 131 – 138 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Suzuki , Kazuharu , Endo , Yukie , Uehara , Mariko , Yamada , Hideaki , Goto , Shiro , Imamura , Mikio and Shiozu , Susumu . 1985 . Effect of lactose, lactulose and sorbitol on mineral utilization and intestinal flora. 7 . Jap. Soc. Nutr. Food Sci. , 38 : 39 – 42 .
   Google Scholar
• Tauber , H. 1981 . 13C evidence for dietary habits of prehistoric man in Denmark . Nature , 292 : 332 – 333 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tieder , M. , Arie , R. , Bab , I. , Maor , J. and Liberman , U.A. 1992 . A new kindred with hereditary hypophosphatemic rickets with hypercalciuria: Implications for correct diagnosis and treatment . Nephron , 62 : 176 – 181 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tilley , C. 1996 . An Ethnography of the Neolithic , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Tremaine , William J. , Newcomer , Albert D. , Riggs , B. Lawrence and McGill , Douglas B. 1986 . Calcium absorption from milk in lactase‐deficient and lactase‐sufficient adults . Dig. Dis. Sci. , 31 : 376 – 378 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ulijaszek , S.J. 1991 . Human dietary change . Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B. Biol. Sci. , 334 : 271 – 279 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vaishnava , H. and Rizvi , S.N.A. 1972 . Nutritional osteomalacia in immigrants in an urban community . Lancet , 1 : 750
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vaishnava , H. and Rizvi , S.N.A. 1973 . Vitamin‐D deficiency osteomalacia in Asians . Lancet , 2 : 621 – 622 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vallois , A.‐V. 1934 . Les maladies de l'homme préhistorique . Revue Sci. , 72 : 666 – 678 .
   Google Scholar
• Vaughan , O.W. and Filer , L.J. Jr. 1960 . The enhancing action of certain carbohydrates on the intestinal absorption of calcium in the rat . J. Nutr. , 71 : 10 – 14 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vik , T. , Try , K. and Strømme , J.H. 1980 . The vitamin D status of man at 70° north . Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Invest. , 40 : 227 – 232 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Virchow , R. 1872 . Untersuchung des Neanderthal Schädels . Zeitschrift für Ethnologie , 4 : 157
   Google Scholar
• Walker , R.M. and Linkswiler , H.M. 1972 . Calcium retention in the adult human male as affected by protein intake . J. Nutr. , 102 : 1297 – 1302 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wallace , A.F.C. 1972 . “ Mental illness, biology and culture ” . In Psychological Anthropology , Edited by: Hsu , F.L.K. 363 – 402 . Cambridge, Mass. : Schenkman .
   Google Scholar
• Wandel , M. 1993 . Nutrition‐related diseases and dietary change among Third World immigrants in northern Europe . Nutr. Health , 9 : 117 – 133 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wasserman , R.H. 1964 . Lactose‐stimulated intestinal absorption of calcium: A theory . Nature , 201 : 997 – 999 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wasserman , R.H. and Comar , C.L. 1959 . Carbohydrates and gastrointestinal absorption of radiostrontium and radiocalcium in the rat . Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. , 101 : 314 – 317 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wasserman , R.H. and Lengemann , F.W. 1960 . Further observations on lactose stimulation of the gastrointestinal absorption of calcium and strontium in the rat . J. Nutr. , 70 : 377 – 384 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webb , A.R. , DeCosta , B.R. and Holick , M.F. 1989 . Sunlight regulates the cutaneous production of vitamin D3 by causing its photodegradation . J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. , 68 : 882 – 887 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webb , A.R. , Kline , L. and Holick , M.F. 1988 . Influence of season and latitude on the cutaneous synthesis of vitamin D3: Exposure to winter sunlight in Boston and Edmonton will not promote vitamin D3 synthesis in human skin . J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. , 67 : 373 – 378 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weick , M.T. 1967 . A history of rickets in the United States., . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 29 : 1234 – 1241 .
   Google Scholar
• Wells , C. 1964 . Bones, Bodies, and Disease , New York : Frederick A. Praeger .
   Google Scholar
• Wells , C. 1967 . “ Pseudopathology ” . In Diseases in Antiquity , Edited by: Brothwell , D. and Sandison , A.T. 5 – 19 . Springfield, Ill. : C.C. Thomas .
   Google Scholar
• Wells , C. 1975 . Prehistoric and historical changes in nutritional diseases and associated conditions . Prog. Food. Nutr. Sci. , 1 : 729 – 779 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wharton , P.A. , Eaton , P.M. and Wharton , B.A. 1984 . Subethnic variation in the diets of Moslem, Sikh and Hindu pregnant women at Sorrento Maternity Hospital, Birmingham . Br. J. Nutr. , 52 : 469 – 476 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wills , M.R. , Day , R.C. , Phillips , J.B. and Bateman , E.C. 1972 . Phytic acid and nutritional rickets in immigrants . Lancet , 1 : 771 – 773 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wilske , J. 1993 . Plasma concentrations of 25‐hydroxyvitamin‐D3 as an indicator of ultraviolet radiation . Arctic Med. Res. , 52 : 166 – 169 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wilske , J. and Arnbom , T. 1996 . Seasonal variation in vitamin D metabolism in southern elephant seal (Mirounga leonina) females at South Georgia . Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A Physiology , 114 : 9 – 14 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wolpoff , M.H. 1980 . Paleo‐Anthropology , New York : Alfred A. Knopf .
   Google Scholar
• Wood , R.J. , Gerhardt , A. and Rosenberg , I.H. 1987 . Effects of glucose and glucose polymers on calcium absorption in healthy subjects . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 46 : 699 – 701 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wood Jones , F. 1908 . Pathological report . Archaeological Survey of Nubia , 2 : 55 – 64 .
   Google Scholar
• Worsfold , M. , Sharpe , C.A. and Davie , M.W.J. 1997 . Reply . J. Pediatr. , 130 : 332 – 333 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wynckel , A. , Jaisser , F. , Wong , T. , Drüeke , T. and Chanard , J. 1991 . Intestinal absorption of calcium from yogurt in lactase‐deficient subjects . Reprod. Nutr. Dev. , 31 : 411 – 418 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zheng , J.‐J. , Wood , R.J. and Rosenberg , I.H. 1985 . Enhancement of calcium absorption in rats by coadministration of glucose polymer . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 41 : 243 – 245 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ziegler , E.E. and Fomon , S.J. 1983 . Lactose enhances mineral absorption in infancy . J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. , 2 : 288 – 294 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zittermann , Armin , Bock , Petra , Drummer , Christian , Scheid , Kerstin , Heer , Martina and Stehle , Peter . 2000 . Lactose does not enhance calcium bioavail‐ability in lactose‐tolerant, healthy adults . Am. J. Gin. Nutr. , 71 : 931 – 936 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Živanović , S. 1982 . Ancient Diseases , London : Methuen .
   Google Scholar
• E‐mail: [email protected]
   Google Scholar