Assessing gender gaps in employment and earnings in Africa: The case of Eswatini

References

• Agenor, P, 2017. A theory of social norms, women’s time allocation, and gender inequality in the process of development. Working paper no. 237. Centre for Growth and Business Cycle Research, University of Manchester.
   Google Scholar
• Amin, M, Kuntchev, V & Schmidt, M, 2015. Gender inequality and growth: The case of rich vs. poor countries, World Bank policy research working paper no. 7172. World Bank, Washington.
   Google Scholar
• Azizi, S, 2018. The impacts of workers’ remittances on Human capital and labor supply in developing countries. Economic Modelling 75, 377–96.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blinder, AS, 1973. Wage discrimination: Reduced form and structural estimates. The Journal of Human Resources 8, 436–55.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boll, C & Lagemann, A, 2019. The gender pay gap in EU countries—New evidence based on EU-SES 2014 data. Intereconomics 54(2), 101–5.
   Google Scholar
• Brixiová, Z & Kangoye, T, 2014. Youth unemployment in Africa: New evidence and policies from Eswatini. In Sciulli, D & Ángel Malo, M (Eds.), Disadvantaged workers. 1st edn, chapter 9. AIEL series in labour economics.
   Google Scholar
• Cox-Edwards, A & Rodriguez-Oreggia, E, 2009. Remittances and labor force participation in Mexico: An analysis using propensity score matching. World Development 37(5), 1004–14.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cuberes, D & Teignier-Baqué, M, 2011. Gender inequality and economic growth. Background paper for the World Development Report 2012. World Bank, Washington, DC.
   Google Scholar
• Dieterich, C, Huang, A & Thomas, A, 2016. Women’s opportunities and challenges in Sub-Saharan African job markets. International Monetary Fund working paper WP/16/188.
   Google Scholar
• Duflo, E, 2012. Women empowerment and economic development. Journal of Economic Literature 50(4), 1051–79.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eswatini Ministry of Labor (2008, 2011 and 2014), Labor Force Survey 2007, 2010, and 2013/14, Mbabane, Eswatini.
   Google Scholar
• Fields, G, 2007. The Harris-Todaro model. Cornell University, ILR School. http://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/workingpapers/21/ Accessed 7 July 2019.
   Google Scholar
• Ganguli, I, Hausmann, R & Viarengo, M, 2014. Closing the gender gap in education: What is the state of gaps in labor force participation for women, wives and mothers? International Labour Review 153(2), 173–220.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hakura, D, Hussain, M, Newiak, M, Thakoor, V & Yang, F, 2016. Inequality, gender gaps and economic growth: Comparative evidence for Sub-Saharan Africa. IMF working paper no. WP/16/111.
   Google Scholar
• Harington, JS, McGlashan, ND & Chelkowska, EZ, 2004. A century of migrant labour in the gold mines of South Africa. The Journal of the South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. https://www.saimm.co.za/Journal/v104n02p065.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Heckman, JJ, 1979. Sample selection bias as a specification error. Econometrica 47, 153–61.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hill, MS, 1979. The wage effects of marital status and children. The Journal of Human Resources 14(4), 579–94.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• International Labour Organization, 2020. ILO monitor: COVID-19 and the world of work. 5th edn. ILO, Geneva.
   Google Scholar
• Jann, B, 2008. The Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition for linear regression models. The Stata Journal 8(4), 453–79.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jauch, H, 2011. Time to turn the tide: Tackling poverty, inequality and unemployment in Southern Africa. Freidrich Ebert Stiftung Perspective, June.
   Google Scholar
• Klasen, S, 2002. Low schooling for girls, slower growth for all? Cross-country evidence on the effect of gender Inequality in education on economic development. The World Bank Economic Review 16(3), 345–73.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klasen, S, 2006. Gender and pro-poor growth. In Menkoff, L (Ed.), Pro-poor growth: policy and evidence. Dunker and Humblot, Berlin.
   Google Scholar
• Klasen, S & Lamanna, F, 2003. The impact of gender inequality in education and employment on economic growth in the Middle East and North Africa. World Bank.
   Google Scholar
• McKinsey, 2019. The power of parity: Advancing women’s equality in Africa. McKinsey Global Institute, Washington, DC.
   Google Scholar
• Mincer, J, 1974. Schooling, experience and earnings. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.
   Google Scholar
• Oaxaca, R, 1973. Male-female wage differentials in urban labor markets. International Economic Review 14, 693–709.
   Google Scholar
• Ostry, JD, Alvarez, J, Espinoza, RA & Papageorgiou, C, 2018. Economic gains from gender inclusion: New mechanisms, new evidence. IMF staff discussion note.
   Google Scholar
• Ruiters, M & Charteris, A, 2020. Gender equality in labour force participation, economic growth and development in South Africa. Development Southern Africa 37(6), 997–1011.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SADC, 2018. SADC gender protocol 2018 Barometer.
   Google Scholar
• Schober, T & Winter-Ebmer, R, 2011. Gender wage inequality and economic growth: Is there really a puzzle? – A comment. World Development 39(8), 1476–84.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stotsky, JG, 2006. Gender and its relevance to macroeconomic policy: A survey. IMF working paper no. 06/233. International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC.
   Google Scholar
• Tsododo, V, 2014. Gender equality and the participation of women in public office in Swaziland. Afrobarometer briefing paper no. 147.
   Google Scholar
• UNDP, 2020. Human development reports – Gender inequality index.
   Google Scholar
• Wenham, C, Smith, J & Morgan, R, 2020. COVID-19: Gendered impacts of the outbreak. The Lancet 395, 14 March.
   Google Scholar
• World Bank, 2012. World development report: Gender equality and development. World Bank, Washington, DC.
   Google Scholar
• World Bank, 2016. Migration and remittances factbook. World Bank, Washington, DC.
   Google Scholar
• World Bank, 2020. The kingdom of Eswatini: Toward equal opportunity: Accelerating inclusion and poverty reduction, systematic country diagnostic. World Bank, Washington, DC.
   Google Scholar