Determinants of arctic-alpine pasture resources: the need for a spatially and functionally fine-scaled perspective

References

• Abdi H. 2010. Partial least squares regression and projection on latent structure regression (PLS regression). Wiley Interdiscip Rev Comput Stat. 2:97–106. doi: 10.1002/wics.51
   Google Scholar
• Austin MP, Smith TM. 1989. A new model for the continuum concept. Vegetatio. 83:35–47. doi: 10.1007/BF00031679
   Google Scholar
• Bär A, Pape R, Bräuning A, Löffler J. 2008. Growth-ring variations of dwarf shrubs reflect regional climate signals in alpine environments rather than topoclimatic differences. J Biogeogr. 35:625–636. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2699.2007.01804.x
   Google Scholar
• Berdanier AB, Klein JA. 2011. Growing season length and soil moisture interactively constrain high elevation aboveground net primary production. Ecosystems. 14:963–974. doi: 10.1007/s10021-011-9459-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bernes C, Bråthen KA, Forbes BC, Speed JD, Moen J. 2015. What are the impacts of reindeer/caribou (Rangifer tarandus L.) on arctic and alpine vegetation? A systematic review. Environ Evid. 4(1):50.
   Google Scholar
• Billings WD. 1973. Arctic and alpine vegetations: similarities, differences, and susceptibility to disturbances. BioScience. 23:697–704. doi: 10.2307/1296827
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Billings WD, Bliss LC. 1959. An alpine snowbank environment and its effects on vegetation, plant development, and productivity. Ecology. 40:388–397. doi: 10.2307/1929755
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bliss LC. 1962. Caloric and lipid content in alpine tundra plants. Ecology. 43:753–757. doi: 10.2307/1933473
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Böhner J, Köthe R, Conrad O, Gross J, Ringeler A, Selige T. 2002. Soil regionalisation by means of terrain analysis and process parameterisation. In: E. Micheli, F. Nachtergaele, L. Montanarella, editors. Soil classification research report 7. Luxembourg: European Soil Bureau; p. 213–222.
   Google Scholar
• Callaghan TV, Tweedie CE, Åkerman J, Andrews C, Bergstedt J, Butler MG, Christensen TR, Cooley D, Dahlberg U, Danby RK, et al. 2011. Multi-decadal changes in tundra environments and ecosystems: synthesis of the International Polar Year-Back to the Future Project (IPY-BTF). Ambio. 40:705–716. doi: 10.1007/s13280-011-0179-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carrascal LM, Galván I, Gordo O. 2009. Partial least squares regression as an alternative to current regression methods used in ecology. Oikos. 118:681–690. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0706.2008.16881.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carroll ML, DiMiceli CM, Sohlberg RA, Townshend JRG. 2010. 250 m MODIS normalized difference vegetation index. College Park (MD): University of Maryland.
   Google Scholar
• Chae Y, Kang SM, Jeong S-J, Kim B, Frierson DMW. 2015. Arctic greening can cause earlier seasonality of arctic amplification. Geophys Res Lett. 42:536–541. doi: 10.1002/2014GL061841
   Google Scholar
• Dahl, E., 1956. Rondane. Mountain vegetation in south Norway and its relation to the environment. Skrifter utgittav det Norske Videnskaps-Akademi i Oslo, Mathematisk-Naturvidenskapelig Klasse 3:1–374.
   Google Scholar
• Danby RK, Hik DS. 2007. Responses of white spruce (Picea glauca) to experimental warming at a subarctic alpine treeline. Glb Chg Bio. 13:437–451. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2006.01302.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Darling MS. 1976. Interpretation of global differences in plant calorific values. Oecologia. 23:127–139. doi: 10.1007/BF00557851
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Jong S. 1993. SIMPLS: an alternative approach to partial least squares regression. Chemom Intell Lab Syst. 18:251–263. doi: 10.1016/0169-7439(93)85002-X
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DNMI (Norwegian Meteorological Institute). 2014. Monthly air temperatures [accessed 1 Nov 2014]. www.eklima.met.no.
   Google Scholar
• Elmendorf SC, Henry GHR, Hollister RD, Björk RG, Boulanger-Lapointe N, Cooper EJ, Cornelissen JHC, Day TA, Dorrepaal E, Elumeeva TG, et al. 2012. Plot-scale evidence of tundra vegetation change and links to recent summer warming. Nat Clim Chang. 2:453–457. doi: 10.1038/nclimate1465
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Epstein HE, Raynolds MK, Walker DA, Bhatt US, Tucker CJ, Pinzon JE. 2012. Dynamics of aboveground phytomass of the circumpolar arctic tundra during the past three decades. Environ Res Lett. 7:015506. doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/7/1/015506
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eriksson L, Johansson E, Kettaneh-Wold N, Trygg J, Wikström C, Wold S. 2006. Multi- and megavariate data analysis. Part 1: basic principles and applications. Umeå: Umetrics.
   Google Scholar
• ESRI. 2010. ArcGIS Desktop Release 10. Redlands (CA): Environmental Systems Research Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Fisk MC, Schmidt SK, Seastedt TR. 1998. Topographic patterns of above- and belowground production and nitrogen cycling in alpine tundra. Ecology. 79:2253–2266. doi: 10.1890/0012-9658(1998)079[2253:TPOAAB]2.0.CO;2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fletcher BJ, Press MC, Baxter R, Phoenix GK. 2010. Transition zones between vegetation patches in a heterogeneous arctic landscape: how plant growth and photosynthesis change with abundance at small scales. Oecologia. 163:47–56. doi: 10.1007/s00442-009-1532-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fraser RH, Lantz TC, Olthof I, Kokelj SV, Sims RA. 2014. Warming-induced shrub expansion and lichen decline in the western Canadian arctic. Ecosystems. 17:1151–1168. doi: 10.1007/s10021-014-9783-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fremstad E. 1997. Vegetasjonstyper i Norge [Vegetation types in Norway]. NINA Temahefte. 12:1–279. [In Norwegian].
   Google Scholar
• Frost GV, Epstein HE, Walker DA. 2014. Regional and landscape-scale variability of Landsat-observed vegetation dynamics in northwest Siberian tundra. Environ Res Lett. 9:025004. doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/9/2/025004
   Google Scholar
• Furberg M, Evengård B, Nilsson M. 2011. Facing the limit of resilience: perceptions of climate change among reindeer herding Sami in Sweden. Glob Health Action. 4:8417. doi: 10.3402/gha.v4i0.8417
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giri C, Pengra B, Long J, Loveland TR. 2013. Next generation of global land cover characterization, mapping, and monitoring. Int J Appl Earth Obs Geoinf. 25:30–37. doi: 10.1016/j.jag.2013.03.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gjærevoll O. 1956. The plant communities of the Scandinavian alpine snow-beds. Det Kunglige Norske videnskabers selskaps skrifter. 1:1–405.
   Google Scholar
• Golley FB. 1961. Energy values of ecological materials. Ecology. 42:581–584. doi: 10.2307/1932247
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graae BJ, De Frenne P, Kolb A, Brunet J, Chabrerie O, Verheyen K, Pepin N, Heinken T, Zobel M, Shevtsova A, et al. 2012. On the use of weather data in ecological studies along altitudinal and latitudinal gradients. Oikos. 121:3–19. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0706.2011.19694.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greaves HE, Vierling LA, Eitel JU, Boelman NT, Magney TS, Prager CM, Griffin KL. 2016. High-resolution mapping of aboveground shrub biomass in arctic tundra using airborne lidar and imagery. Remote Sens Environ. 184:361–373. doi: 10.1016/j.rse.2016.07.026
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hall DK, Salomonson VV, Riggs GA. 2006. MODIS/terra snow cover 8-Day L3 global 500 m grid. Boulder (CO): National Snow and Ice Data Centre.
   Google Scholar
• Heegaard E. 2002. A model of alpine species distribution in relation to snowmelt time and altitude. J Veg Sci. 13:493–504. doi: 10.1111/j.1654-1103.2002.tb02076.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hein N, Feilhauer H, Finch O-D, Schmidtlein S, Löffler J. 2014. Snow cover determines the ecology and biogeography of spiders (Araneae) in alpine tundra ecosystems. Erdkunde. 68:157–172. doi: 10.3112/erdkunde.2014.03.01
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horn BKP. 1981. Hill shading and the reflectance map. Proc IEEE. 69:14–47. doi: 10.1109/PROC.1981.11918
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaarlejärvi E, Baxter R, Hofgaard A, Hytteborn H, Khitun O, Molau U, Sjögersten S, Wookey P, Olofsson J. 2012. Effects of warming on shrub abundance and chemistry drive ecosystem-level changes in a forest–tundra ecotone. Ecosystems. 15:1219–1233. doi: 10.1007/s10021-012-9580-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koch B, Edwards PJ, Blanckenhorn WU, Walter T, Hofer G. 2015. Shrub encroachment affects the diversity of plants, butterflies, and grasshoppers on two Swiss subalpine pastures. Arct Antarct Alp Res. 47:345–357. doi: 10.1657/AAAR0013-093
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Körner C. 2007. The use of ‘altitude’ in ecological research. Trends Ecol Evol. 22:569–574. doi: 10.1016/j.tree.2007.09.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Köster K, Berninger F, Köster E, Pumpanen J. 2015. Influences of reindeer grazing on above- and belowground biomass and soil carbon dynamics. Arct Antarct Alp Res. 47:495–503. doi: 10.1657/AAAR0014-062
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kucheryavskiy S. 2015. mdatools: multivariate data analysis for chemometrics. R package version 0.7.0. https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=mdatools.
   Google Scholar
• Kuhn M. 2016. caret: classification and regression training. R package version 6.0-70. http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=caret.
   Google Scholar
• le Roux PC, Aalto J, Luoto M. 2013. Soil moisture’s underestimated role in climate change impact modelling in low-energy systems. Glb Chg Bio. 19:2965–2975. doi: 10.1111/gcb.12286
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• le Roux PC, Luoto M, Michalet R. 2014. Earth surface processes drive the richness, composition and occurrence of plant species in an arctic-alpine environment. J Veg Sci. 25:45–54. doi: 10.1111/jvs.12059
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li C, Qi J, Yang L, Wang S, Yang W, Zhu G, Zou S, Zhang F. 2014. Regional vegetation dynamics and its response to climate change – a case study in the Tao river basin in northwestern China. Environ Res Lett. 9:125003. doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/9/12/125003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Litaor MI, Williams M, Seastedt TR. 2008. Topographic controls on snow distribution, soil moisture, and species diversity of herbaceous alpine vegetation, Niwot Ridge, Colorado. J Geophys Res. 113:G02008. doi: 10.1029/2007JG000419
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Löffler J. 2000. High mountain ecosystems and landscape degradation in northern Norway. Mt Res Dev. 20:356–363. doi: 10.1659/0276-4741(2000)020[0356:HMEALD]2.0.CO;2
   Google Scholar
• Löffler J. 2005. Snow cover dynamics, soil moisture variability and vegetation ecology in high mountain catchments of central Norway. Hydrol Processes. 19:2385–2405. doi: 10.1002/hyp.5891
   Google Scholar
• Löffler J, Pape R. 2008. Diversity patterns in relation to the environment in alpine tundra ecosystems of northern Norway. Arct Antarct Alp Res. 40:373–381. doi: 10.1657/1523-0430(06-097)[LOEFFLER]2.0.CO;2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Löffler J, Pape R, Wundram D. 2006. The climatologic significance of topography, altitude and region in high mountains – a survey of oceanic-continental differentiations of the Scandes. Erdkunde. 60:15–24. doi: 10.3112/erdkunde.2006.01.02
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lookingbill TR, Urban DL. 2005. Gradient analysis, the next generation: towards more plant-relevant explanatory variables. Can J For Res. 35:1744–1753. doi: 10.1139/x05-109
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mårell A, Hofgaard A, Danell K. 2006. Nutrient dynamics of reindeer forage species along snowmelt gradients at different ecological scales. Basic Appl Ecol. 7:13–30. doi: 10.1016/j.baae.2005.04.005
   Google Scholar
• Miller PA, Smith B. 2012. Modelling tundra vegetation response to recent arctic warming. AMBIO. 41:281–291. doi: 10.1007/s13280-012-0306-1
   Google Scholar
• Moen J. 2008. Climate change: effects on the ecological basis for reindeer husbandry in Sweden. AMBIO. 37:304–311. doi: 10.1579/0044-7447(2008)37[304:CCEOTE]2.0.CO;2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Myers-Smith IH, Elmendorf SC, Beck PSA, Wilmking M, Hallinger M, Blok D, Tape KD, Rayback SA, Macias-Fauria M, Forbes BC, et al. 2015. Climate sensitivity of shrub growth across the tundra biome. Nat Clim Chang. 5:887–891. doi: 10.1038/nclimate2697
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pape R, Löffler J. 2012. Climate change, land use conflicts, predation and ecological degradation as challenges for reindeer husbandry in Northern Europe: what do we really know after half a century of research? AMBIO. 41:421–434. doi: 10.1007/s13280-012-0257-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pape R, Löffler J. 2016a. Spatial patterns of alpine phytomass, primary productivity, and related calorific resources. Ecosphere. 7(6):e01347. doi: 10.1002/ecs2.1347
   Google Scholar
• Pape R, Löffler J. 2016b. Broad-scale assumptions on available pasture resources and reindeer’s habitat preferences shown to be decoupled from ecological reality of arctic-alpine landscapes. Erdkunde. 70:169–192. doi: 10.3112/erdkunde.2016.02.05
   Google Scholar
• Pape R, Wundram D, Löffler J. 2009. Modelling near-surface temperature conditions in high mountain environments: an appraisal. Clim Res. 39:99–109. doi: 10.3354/cr00795
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pradervand J-N, Dubuis A, Pellissier L, Guisan A, Randin C. 2014. Very high resolution environmental predictors in species distribution models Prog Phys Geogr. 38:79–96. doi: 10.1177/0309133313512667
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rajalahti T, Arneberg R, Kroksveen AC, Berle M, Myhr K-M, Kvalheim OM. 2009. Discriminating variable test and selectivity ratio plot: quantitative tools for interpretation and variable (biomarker) selection in complex spectral or chromatographic profiles. Anal Chem. 81:2581–2590. doi: 10.1021/ac802514y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raynolds MK, Walker DA, Epstein HE, Pinzon JE, Tucker CJ. 2012. A new estimate of tundra-biome phytomass from trans-arctic field data and AVHRR NDVI. Remote Sens Lett. 3:403–411. doi: 10.1080/01431161.2011.609188
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• R Core Team. 2016. R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna: R Foundation for Statistical Computing. http://www.R-project.org.
   Google Scholar
• Riihimäki H, Heiskanen J, Luoto M. 2017. The effect of topography on arctic-alpine aboveground biomass and NDVI patterns. Int J Appl Earth Obs Geoinf. 56:44–53. doi: 10.1016/j.jag.2016.11.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ropars P, Boudreau S. 2012. Shrub expansion at the forest-tundra ecotone: spatial heterogeneity linked to local topography. Environ Res Lett. 7:015501. doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/7/1/015501
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ropars P, Lévesque E, Boudreau S. 2015. How do climate and topography influence the greening of the forest-tundra ecotone in northern Québec? A dendrochronological analysis of Betula glandulosa. J Ecol. 103:679–690. doi: 10.1111/1365-2745.12394
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt S, Weber B, Winiger M. 2009. Analyses of seasonal snow disappearance in an alpine valley from micro- to mesoscale (Loetschental, Switzerland). Hydrol Process. 23:1041–1051. doi: 10.1002/hyp.7205
   Google Scholar
• Shaver GR. 1986. Woody stem production in Alaskan tundra shrubs. Ecology. 67:660–669. doi: 10.2307/1937690
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shevtsova A, Ojala A, Neuvonen S, Vieno M, Haukioja E. 1997. Growth and reproduction of dwarf shrubs in a subarctic plant community: annual variation and aboveground interactions with neighbours. J Ecol. 83:263–275. doi: 10.2307/2261565
   Google Scholar
• Sitch S, McGuire AD, Kimball J, Gedney N, Gamon J, Engstrom R, Wolf A, Zhuang Q, Clein J, McDonald KC. 2007. Assessing the carbon balance of circumpolar arctic tundra using remote sensing and process modeling. Ecol. Appl. 17:213–234.
   Google Scholar
• Storeheier PV, Mathiesen SD, Tyler NJC, Olsen MA. 2002. Nutritive value of terricolous lichens for reindeer in winter. Lichenologist. 34:247–257. doi: 10.1006/lich.2002.0394
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suvanto S, le Roux PC, Luoto M. 2014. Arctic-alpine vegetation biomass is driven by fine-scale abiotic heterogeneity. Geogr Ann: Ser A, Phys Geogr. 96:549–560.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tape KD, Hallinger M, Welker JM, Ruess RW. 2012. Landscape heterogeneity of shrub expansion in arctic Alaska. Ecosystems. 15:711–724. doi: 10.1007/s10021-012-9540-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turunen M, Soppela P, Kinnunen H, Sutinen M-L, Martz F. 2009. Does climate change influence the availability and quality of reindeer forage plants? Polar Biol. 32:813–832. doi: 10.1007/s00300-009-0609-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tveito OE, Førland E, Heino R, Hanssen-Bauer I, Alexandersson H, Dahlström B, Drebs A, Kern-Hansen C, Jónsson T, Vaarby Laursen E, Westman Y. 2000. Nordic temperature maps. Oslo: Norwegian Meteorological Institute. Report 09/00.
   Google Scholar
• Tveraa T, Stien A, Bårdsen B-J, Fauchald P, Bohrer G. 2013. Population densities, vegetation green-up, and plant productivity: impacts on reproductive success and juvenile body mass in reindeer. Plos One. 8:e56450. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0056450
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tybirk K, Nilsson MC, Michelsen A, Kristensen HL, Shevtsova A, Tune Strandberg M, Johansson M, Nielsen KE, Riis-Nielsen T, Strandberg B, Johnsen I. 2000. Nordic Empetrum dominated ecosystems: function and susceptibility to environmental changes. AMBIO: J Human Env. 29(2):90–97. doi: 10.1579/0044-7447-29.2.90
   Google Scholar
• Urban D, Goslee S, Pierce K, Lookingbill T. 2002. Extending community ecology to landscapes. Écoscience. 9:200–212. doi: 10.1080/11956860.2002.11682706
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Venn A, Pickering C, Green K. 2014. Spatial and temporal functional changes in alpine summit vegetation are driven by increases in shrubs and graminoids. AoB Plants. 6:plu008. doi: 10.1093/aobpla/plu008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Virtanen T, Ek M. 2014. The fragmented nature of tundra landscape. Int J Appl Earth Obs Geoinf. 27:4–12. doi: 10.1016/j.jag.2013.05.010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker MD. 1995. Patterns and causes of arctic plant community diversity. In: F.S. Chapin, C. Körner, editors. Arctic and alpine biodiversity. New York: Springer; p. 3–20.
   Google Scholar
• Walker DA, Epstein HE, Jia GJ, Balser A, Copass C, Edwards EJ, Gould WA, Hollingsworth J, Knudson J, Maier HA, et al. 2003. Phytomass, LAI, and NDVI in Northern Alaska: relationships to summer warmth, soil pH, plant functional types, and extrapolation to the circumpolar arctic. J Geophys Res. 108:8169. doi: 10.1029/2001JD000986
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiens JA. 1989. Spatial scaling in ecology. Funct Ecol. 3:385–397. doi: 10.2307/2389612
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson MFJ, O’Connell B, Brown C, Guinan JC, Grehan AJ. 2007. Multiscale terrain analysis of multibeam bathymetry data for habitat mapping on the continental slope. Mar Geod. 30:3–35. doi: 10.1080/01490410701295962
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wold H. 1975. Soft modelling by latent variables: the non-linear iterative partial least squares (NIPALS) approach. In: J. Gani, editor. Perspectives in probability and statistics. New York (NY): Academic Press; p. 117–142.
   Google Scholar
• Wold S. 1978. Cross-validatory estimation of the number of components in factor and principal components models. Technometrics. 20:397–405. doi: 10.1080/00401706.1978.10489693
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wold S, Sjöström M, Eriksson L. 2001. PLS-regression: a basic tool of chemometrics. Chemom Intell Lab Syst. 58:109–130. doi: 10.1016/S0169-7439(01)00155-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wundram D, Pape R, Löffler J. 2010. Alpine soil temperature variability at multiple scales. Arct Antarct Alp Res. 42:117–128. doi: 10.1657/1938-4246-42.1.117
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang E, Kimball JS, Hogg EH, Zhao M, Oechel WC, Cassano JJ, Running SW. 2008. Satellite-based model detection of recent climate-driven changes in northern high-latitude vegetation productivity. J Geophys Res. 113:G03033.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao M, Running SW. 2010. Drought-induced reduction in global terrestrial net primary production from 2000 through 2009. Science. 329:940–943. doi: 10.1126/science.1192666
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar