269
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

Rock slope failure in the Lake District, NW England: an overview

ORCID Icon &
Pages 201-225 | Received 25 Jan 2022, Accepted 17 Aug 2022, Published online: 12 Oct 2022

References

  • Avery RS, Kemp AES, Bull JM, Pearce RB, Vardy MF, Fielding JJ, Cotterill CJ. 2019. A new varve sequence from Windermere, UK, records rapid ice retreat prior to the Lateglacial Interstadial (GI-1). Quat Sci Rev. 225:105894.
  • Ballantyne, CK. 1986. Landslides and slope failures in Scotland: a review. Scott Geogr Mag. 102:134–150.
  • Ballantyne CK. 2002. Paraglacial geomorphology. Quat Sci Rev. 21:1935–2017.
  • Ballantyne CK. 2013. Lateglacial rock-slope failures in the Scottish Highlands. Scott Geogr J. 129:67–84.
  • Ballantyne CK. 2018. Glacially moulded landslide runout debris in the Scottish Highlands. Scott Geogr J. 134:224–236.
  • Ballantyne CK, Sandeman GF, Stone JO, Wilson P. 2014. Rock-slope failure following Late Pleistocene deglaciation on tectonically stable mountainous terrain. Quat Sci Rev. 86:144–157.
  • Ballantyne CK, Stone JO. 2013. Timing and periodicity of paraglacial rock-slope failures in the Scottish Highlands. Geomorphology. 186:150–161.
  • Benn DI. 1989. Debris transport by Loch Lomond readvance glaciers in northern Scotland: basin form and within-valley asymmetry of lateral moraines. J Quaternary Sci. 4:243–254.
  • Bickerdike HL, Evans DJA, Stokes CR, Cofaigh C Ó. 2018. The glacial geomorphology of the Loch Lomond (Younger Dryas) Stadial in Britain: a review. J Quaternary Sci. 33:1–54.
  • Biden RM. 1999. Fell and rock climbing club of the English Lake District Guide: Langdale. Fell and Rock Climbing Club of the English Lake District, Cartmel.
  • Blondeau S, Gunnell Y, Jarman D. 2021. Rock slope failure in the western Alps: a first comprehensive inventory and spatial analysis. Geomorphology. 380:107622.
  • Boardman J. 1982. Glacial geomorphology of the Keswick area, northern Cumbria. Proceedings, Cumberland Geological Society. 4:115–134.
  • British Geological Survey. 1997. Cockermouth. England and Wales Sheet 23. Solid and Drift Geology 1:50,000. British Geological Survey, Nottingham.
  • British Geological Survey. 1998. Ambleside. England and Wales Sheet 38. Solid and Drift Geology 1:50,000. British Geological Survey, Nottingham.
  • British Geological Survey. 1999. Keswick. England and Wales Sheet 29. Solid and Drift Geology 1:50,000. British Geological Survey, Nottingham.
  • British Geological Survey. 2001. Ulverston. England and Wales Sheet 48. Solid and Drift Geology 1:50,000. British Geological Survey, Nottingham.
  • British Geological Survey. 2004a. Appleby. England and Wales Sheet 30. Solid and Drift Geology 1:50,000. British Geological Survey, Nottingham.
  • British Geological Survey. 2004b. Whitehaven. England and Wales Sheet 28. Bedrock and Superficial Deposits 1:50,000. British Geological Survey, Nottingham.
  • British Geological Survey. 2008. Kendal. England and Wales Sheet 39. Superficial Deposits and Simplified Bedrock 1:50,000. British Geological Survey, Nottingham.
  • Brown V, Evans DJA, Vieli A, Evans IS. 2013. The Younger Dryas in the English Lake District: reconciling geomorphological evidence with numerical model outputs. Boreas. 42:1022–1042.
  • Calvet M, Gunnell Y, Farines B. 2015. Flat-topped mountain ranges: their global distribution and value for understanding the evolution of mountain topography. Geomorphology. 241:255–291.
  • Chiverrell RC, Smedley RK, Small D, Ballantyne CK, Burke MJ, Callard SL, Clark CD, Duller GAT, Evans DJA, Fabel D, et al. 2018. Ice margin oscillations during deglaciation of the northern Irish Sea Basin. J Quaternary Sci. 33:739–762.
  • Clark R. 1992. Quaternary features north of the Kirkstone Pass. In: Dodd M, editor. Lakeland Rocks and Landscape: a field guide. Maryport: Ellenbank Press; p. 88–94.
  • Clark R, Wilson P. 2004. A rock avalanche deposit in Burtness Comb, Lake District, northwest England. Geol J. 39:419–430.
  • Clough CT. 1897. Landslips. In: Gunn W, Clough CT, Hill JB., editor. The geology of Cowal. Memoirs of the geological survey. Geological Survey, Edinburgh; p. 275–277.
  • Coquin J, Mercier D, Bourgeois O, Decaulne A. 2019. A paraglacial rock-slope failure origin for cirques: a case study from northern Iceland. Geomorphologie: Relief, Processus, Environnement. 25:117–136.
  • Craig D. 2008. Death of a crag. Cumbria Life. 115:169–173.
  • Cram AG. 1983. Notes and new routes. The Fell Rock Club J. 23:349.
  • Crosta GB, Frattini P, Agliardi F. 2013. Deep seated gravitational slope deformations in the European Alps. Tectonophysics. 605:13–33.
  • Curry AM. 2021. Paraglacial rock-slope failure following deglaciation in western Norway. In: Beylich AA., editor. Landscapes and landforms of Norway. Switzerland: Springer Nature; p. 97–130.
  • Davies TRH, Warburton J, Dunning SA, Bubeck AAP. 2013. A large landslide event in a post-glacial landscape: rethinking glacial legacy. Earth Surf Processes Landforms. 38:1261–1268.
  • Dunning SA, Warburton J, Davies TM, Pound M. 2015. The Clough Head landslide deposit. In: McDougall DA, Evans DJA, editor. The Quaternary of the Lake District – field guide. London: Quaternary Research Association; p. 137–152.
  • Dykes AP, Bromhead EN, Ibsen M-L. 2010. Fault-controlled bedrock landslides in England’s Lake District. In: Malet J-P, Glade T, Casagli N., editor. Mountain risks: bringing science to society. Strasbourg: CERG Editions; p. 37–42.
  • Evans DJA. 2015. Glaciation of the Lake District (pre-Younger Dryas). In: McDougall DA, Evans DJA, editor. The Quaternary of the Lake District – field guide. London: Quaternary Research Association; p. 9–27.
  • Evans DJA, Livingstone SJ, Vieli A, Ơ Cofaigh C. 2009. The palaeoglaciology of the central sector of the British and Irish Ice Sheet: reconciling glacial geomorphology and preliminary ice sheet modelling. Quat Sci Rev. 28:739–757.
  • Evans IS. 1997. Process and form in the erosion of glaciated mountains. In: Stoddart DR, editor. Process and form in geomorphology. London: Routledge; p. 145–174.
  • Evans IS. 2015. The Lake District cirque inventory: updated. In: McDougall DA, Evans DJA, editor. The Quaternary of the Lake District – field guide. London: Quaternary Research Association; p. 65–82.
  • Evans IS. 2021. Glaciers, rock avalanches and the ‘buzzsaw’ in cirque development: why mountain cirques are of mainly glacial origin. Earth Surf Processes Landforms. 46:24–46.
  • Evans IS, Cox NJ. 1995. The form of glacial cirques in the English Lake District, Cumbria. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie. 39:175–202.
  • Golledge NR. 2010. Glaciation of Scotland during the Younger Dryas Stadial: a review. J Quaternary Sci. 25:550–566.
  • Gordon JE, Birnie RV, Timmis R. 1978. A major rockfall and debris slide on the Lyell Glacier, S. Georgia. Arct Alp Res. 10:49–60.
  • Gray T. 1769. Journal of a visit to the Lake District in October 1769.
  • Griffiths JS, Martin CJ, editors 2017. Engineering geology and geomorphology of glaciated and periglaciated terrains–engineering group working party report. Geological Society, London, Engineering Geology Special Publications, 28.
  • Gunnell Y, Blondeau S, Jarman D. 2022. Rock slope failure in the Southern Carpathians (Romania): Range-wide inventory and links with long-term mountain landscape evolution. Geomorphology, doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2022.108433
  • Harrison S, Whalley B, Anderson E. 2008. Relict rock glaciers and protalus lobes in the British Isles: implications for Late Pleistocene mountain geomorphology and palaeoclimate. J Quaternary Sci. 23:287–304.
  • Harvey AM. 1985. The river systems of north-west England. In: Johnson RH, editor. The geomorphology of northwest England. Manchester: Manchester University Press; p. 122–142.
  • Hay T. 1942. Physiographical notes from Lakeland. Geog J. 100:165–173.
  • Hewitt K. 1999. Quaternary moraines vs. catastrophic rock avalanches in the Karakoram Himalaya, northern Pakistan. Quat Res. 51:220–237.
  • Holmes G. 1984. Rock-slope failure in parts of the Scottish Highlands [Ph.D. thesis]. University of Edinburgh.
  • Hubbard A, Bradwell T, Golledge N, Hall A, Patton H, Sugden D, Cooper R, Stoker M. 2009. Dynamic cycles, ice streams and their impact on the extent, chronology and deglaciation of the British-Irish Ice Sheet. Quat Sci Rev. 28:758–776.
  • Jarman D. 2006. Large rock slope failures in the Highlands of Scotland: characterisation, causes and spatial distribution. Eng Geol. 83:161–182.
  • Jarman D. 2007. Introduction to the mass movements in the older mountain areas of Britain. In: Cooper RG, editor. Mass movements in Great Britain. Geological Conservation Review Series 33, Peterborough: Joint Nature Conservation Committee; p. 33–55.
  • Jarman D. 2009. Paraglacial rock slope failure as an agent of glacial trough widening. In: Knight J, Harrison S., editor. Periglacial and paraglacial processes and environments. London, Geological Society of London Special Publication; 320: p. 103–131.
  • Jarman D. 2010. Anomalous deposits and landforms in the Welsh mountains – problems of rock slope failure interpretation. Quaternary Newsletter. 122:1–15.
  • Jarman D. 2015. Northern Lake District landscape evolution; the Threlkeld Gap and other enigmas. In: McDougall DA, Evans DJA, editor. The Quaternary of the Lake District – field guide. London: Quaternary Research Association; p. 175–187.
  • Jarman D, Calvet M, Corominas J, Delmas M, Gunnell Y. 2014. Large-scale rock slope failures in the eastern Pyrenees: identifying a sparse but significant population in paraglacial and parafluvial contexts. Geogr Ann A. 96A:357–391.
  • Jarman D, Harrison S. 2019. Rock slope failure in the British mountains. Geomorphology. 340:202–233.
  • Jarman D, Wilson P. 2015a. Anomalous terrain at Dove Crags ‘cirqueform’ and Gasgale Gill asymmetric valley, English Lake District, attributed to large-scale rock slope failure of pre-LGM origins. Proceedings of the Yorkshire Geological Society. 60:243–257.
  • Jarman D, Wilson P. 2015b. Clough Head – Threlkeld Knotts: a perplexing RSF complex. In: McDougall DA, Evans DJA, editor. The Quaternary of the Lake District – field guide. London: Quaternary Research Association; p. 153–173.
  • Jarman D, Wilson P, Harrison S. 2013. Are there any relict rock glaciers in the British mountains? J Quaternary Sci. 28:131–143.
  • Jiskoot H. 2011. Long-runout rockslide on glacier at Tsar mountain, Canadian Rocky Mountains: potential triggers, seismic and glaciological implications. Earth Surf Processes Landforms. 36:203–216.
  • Johnson EW, Soper NJ, Burgess IC, Ball DF, Beddoe-Stephens B, Carruthers RM, Fortey NJ, Hirons SR, Merritt JW, Millward D, et al. 2001. Geology of the country around Ulverston. Memoir of the British Geological Survey sheet 48 (England and Wales), British Geological Survey, Nottingham.
  • Kariya Y, Sato G, Komori J. 2011. Landslide-induced terminal moraine-like landforms on the east side of Mount Shiroumadake, northern Japanese Alps. Geomorphology. 127:156–165.
  • Kos A, Amann F, Strozzi T, Delaloye R, von Ruette J, Springman S. 2016. Contemporary glacier retreat triggers a rapid landslide response, Great Aletsch Glacier, Switzerland. Geophys Res Lett 43. doi:10.1002/2016GL071708.
  • Linton DL. 1957. Radiating valleys in glaciated lands. Tidjschrift van het Koninklijk Nederlansch Aardrijkskindig Genootschap. 74:297–312.
  • Livingstone SJ, Evans DJA, Cofaigh C Ó, Davies BJ, Merritt JW, Huddart D, Mitchell WA, Roberts DH, Yorke L. 2012. Glaciodynamics of the central sector of the last British-Irish Ice Sheet in northern England. Earth Sci Rev. 111:25–55.
  • Manley G. 1959. The Late Glacial climate of north-west England. Liverpool Manchester Geol J. 2:188–215.
  • McColl ST. 2012. Paraglacial rock-slope stability. Geomorphology. 153-154:1–16.
  • McDougall D. 2001. The geomorphological impact of Loch Lomond (Younger Dryas) Stadial plateau icefields in the central Lake District, northwest England. J Quaternary Sci. 16:531–543.
  • McDougall D. 2013. Glaciation style and the geomorphological record: evidence for Younger Dryas glaciers in the eastern Lake District, northwest England. Quat Sci Rev. 73:48–58.
  • Melville C. 1986. Historical earthquakes in northwest England. Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society. 2:193–219.
  • Mercier D, Coquin J, Feuillet T, Decaulne A, Cossart E, Jónsson HP, Sæmundsson Ϸ. 2017. Are Icelandic rock-slope failures paraglacial? Age evaluation of seventeen rock-slope failures in the Skagafjördur area, based on geomorphological stacking, radiocarbon dating and tephrochronology. Geomorphology. 296:45–58.
  • Mitchell GH. 1931. The geomorphology of the eastern part of the Lake District. Proceedings of the Liverpool Geological Society. 15:322–338.
  • Mitchell WA. 1991. Cautley Crags. In: Mitchell WA, editor. Western Pennines: field guide. London: Quaternary Research Association; p. 94–98.
  • Mitchell WA, Clark CD. 1994. The last ice sheet in Cumbria. In: Boardman J, Walden J, editor. The Quaternary of Cumbria: field guide. Oxford: Quaternary Research Association; p. 4–14.
  • Musson RMW, Henni PHO. 2002. The felt effects of the Carlisle earthquake of 26 December 1979. Scottish J Geol. 38:113–126.
  • Ortuño M, Guinau M, Calvet J, Furdada G, Bordonau J, Ruiz A, Camafort M. 2017. Potential of airborne LiDAR data analysis to detect subtle landforms of slope failure: Portainé, central Pyrenees. Geomorphology. 295:364–382.
  • Oxford SP. 1985. Protalus ramparts, protalus rock glaciers and soliflucted till in the northwest part of the English Lake District. In: Boardman J, editor. Field guide to the periglacial landforms of northern England. Cambridge: Quaternary Research Association; p. 38–46.
  • Oxford SP. 1994. Periglacial snowbed landforms at Dead Crags, Cumbria. In: Boardman J, Walden J, editor. Cumbria: field guide. Oxford: Quaternary Research Association; p. 158–164.
  • Pánek T, Břežný M, Harrison S, Schönfeldt E, Winocur D. 2022. Large landslides cluster at the margin of a deglaciated mountain belt. Sci Rep. 12:5658.
  • Pennington W. 1996. Limnic sediments and the taphonomy of Lateglacial pollen assemblages. Quat Sci Rev. 15:501–530.
  • Reznichenko NV, Davies TRH, Shulmeister J, Larsen SH. 2012. A new technique for identifying rock avalanche-sourced sediment in moraines and some palaeoclimatic implications. Geology. 40:319–322.
  • Rouyet L, Lilleøren KS, Böhme M, Vick LM, Delaloye R, Etzelmüller B, Lauknes TR, Larsen Y, Blikra LH. 2021. Regional morpho-kinematic inventory of slope movements in northern Norway. Frontiers Earth Sci. doi:10.3389/feart.2021.681088.
  • Sanchez G, Rolland Y, Corsini M, Braucher R, Bourlès D, Arnold M, Aumaître G. 2009. Relationships between tectonics, slope instability and climate change: cosmic ray exposure dating of active faults, landslides and glacial surfaces in the SW Alps. Geomorphology. 117:1–13.
  • Sissons JB. 1980. The Loch Lomond Advance in the Lake District, northern England. Trans Royal Society of Edinburgh: Earth Sci. 71:13–27.
  • Slaymaker O. 2009. Proglacial, periglacial or paraglacial. In: Knight J, Harrison S., editor. Periglacial and paraglacial processes and environments. London, Geological Society of London Special Publication; 320: p. 71–84.
  • Smith A. 2002. The Bowder Stone, Grange-in-Borrowdale, Cumbria. Proceedings, Cumberland Geological Society. 6:525–538.
  • Smith A. 2019. Lakeland rocks. Marlborough: Crowood Press.
  • Smith B. 1912. The glaciation of the Black Combe district (Cumberland). Quarterly J Geol Soc. 68:402–448.
  • Stone P, Millward D, Young B, Merritt JW, Clarke SM, McCormac M, Lawrence DJD. 2010. British regional geology: northern England, 5th ed. Nottingham: British Geological Survey.
  • Turnbull JM, Davies TRH. 2006. A mass movement origin for cirques. Earth Surf Processes Landforms. 31:1129–1148.
  • Wainwright A. 1955–66. A pictorial guide to the Lakeland fells. Books 1-7, Kendal: Westmorland Gazette.
  • Wainwright A. 1974. The outlying fells of Lakeland. Kendal: Westmorland Gazette.
  • Ward JC. 1873. On rock fissuring. Geol Mag. 10:245–248.
  • Webb BC. 1990. The Buttermere Formation (Skiddaw Group) in the Robinson area. In: Moseley F., editor. The geology of the Lake District. Geologists’ Association Guide No. 2. London: The Geologists’ Association; p. 74–82.
  • Westaway R. 2009. Quaternary uplift of northern England. Glob Planet Change. 68:357–382.
  • Whalley WB. 1997. Protalus ramparts, rock glaciers and protalus lobes in the Lake District. In: Boardman J., editor. Geomorphology of the Lake District: a field guide. Oxford: British Geomorphological Research Group; p. 51–61.
  • Wilson P. 2003. Landslides in Lakeland. Conserving Lakeland. Winter/Spring: 24–25.
  • Wilson P. 2004. Description and implications of valley moraines in upper Eskdale, Lake District. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association. 115:55–61.
  • Wilson P. 2005. Paraglacial rock-slope failures in Wasdale, western Lake District, England: morphology, styles and significance. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association. 116:349–361.
  • Wilson P. 2010. Lake District mountain landforms. Lancaster: Scotforth Books.
  • Wilson P. 2011a. Lake District hillslopes. Geology Today. 27:149–153.
  • Wilson P. 2011b. Re-interpretation of the ‘relict protalus rock glacier’ at Grasmoor End, northwest Lake District. North West Geography. 11:1–6.
  • Wilson P. 2013. The Wast Water screes: how were they formed? Geogr Rev (Oxf). 26:22–24.
  • Wilson P. 2015. Gray Crag and The Knott rock slope failures. In: McDougall DA, Evans DJA, editor. The Quaternary of the Lake District – field guide. London: Quaternary Research Association; p. 129–135.
  • Wilson P, Clark R, Smith A. 2004. Rock-slope failures in the Lake District: a preliminary report. Proceedings, Cumberland Geological Society. 7:13–36.
  • Wilson P, Jarman D. 2013. The Burtness Comb rock avalanche, English Lake District: a rare case of rock slope failure‒glacier interaction. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association. 124:477–483.
  • Wilson P, Jarman D. 2015a. Rock slope failure in the Lake District. In: McDougall DA, Evans DJA, editor. The Quaternary of the Lake District – field guide. London: Quaternary Research Association; p. 83–95.
  • Wilson P, Jarman D. 2015b. The Robinson rock slope failure. In: McDougall DA, Evans DJA, editor. The Quaternary of the Lake District – field guide. London: Quaternary Research Association; p. 201–211.
  • Wilson P, Rodés A, Smith A. 2018. Valley glaciers persisted in the Lake District, northwest England, until ∼16-15 ka as revealed by terrestrial cosmogenic nuclide (10Be) dating: a response to Heinrich event 1? J Quaternary Sci. 33:518–526.
  • Wilson P, Smith A. 2006. Geomorphological characteristics and significance of Late Quaternary paraglacial rock-slope failures on Skiddaw Group terrain, Lake District, northwest England. Geogr Ann A. 88A:237–253.
  • Woodhall DG. 2000. Geology of the Keswick district. Sheet description of the British Geological Survey, 1:50,000 Series Sheet 29 Keswick (England and Wales).

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.