309
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Articles

Standardized precipitation evapotranspiration index (SPEI) for Canada: assessment of probability distributions

, &
Pages 283-299 | Received 21 Dec 2022, Accepted 14 Feb 2023, Published online: 30 Apr 2023

References

  • Allen, Richard G., Luis S. Pereira, Dirk Raes, and Martin Smith. 1998. “Crop Evapotranspiration-Guidelines for Computing Crop Water Requirements-FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 56.” FAO, Rome 300 (9): D05109.
  • Asong, Zilefac Elvis, Howard Simon Wheater, Barrie Bonsal, Saman Razavi, and Sopan Kurkute. 2018. “Historical Drought Patterns over Canada and Their Teleconnections with Large-Scale Climate Signals.” Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 22 (6): 3105–3124. doi:10.5194/hess-22-3105-2018.
  • Assani, Ali A., Raphaëlle Landry, Ouassila Azouaoui, Philippe Massicotte, and Denis Gratton. 2016. “Comparison of the Characteristics (Frequency and Timing) of Drought and Wetness Indices of Annual Mean Water Levels in the Five North American Great Lakes.” Water Resources Management 30 (1): 359–373. doi:10.1007/s11269-015-1166-9.
  • Balting, Daniel F., Amir AghaKouchak, Gerrit Lohmann, and Monica Ionita. 2021. “Northern Hemisphere Drought Risk in a Warming Climate.” Npj Climate and Atmospheric Science 4 (1): 61. doi:10.1038/s41612-021-00218-2.
  • Beguería, Santiago, Sergio M. Vicente‐Serrano, Fergus Reig, and Borja Latorre. 2014. “Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI) Revisited: Parameter Fitting, Evapotranspiration Models, Tools, Datasets and Drought Monitoring.” International Journal of Climatology 34 (10): 3001–3023. doi:10.1002/joc.3887.
  • Benjamini, Yoav, and Daniel Yekutieli. 2001. “The Control of the False Discovery Rate in Multiple Testing under Dependency.” Annals of Statistics 29 (4): 1165–1188.
  • Bezdan, Jovana, Atila Bezdan, Boško Blagojević, Minučer Mesaroš, Borivoj Pejić, Milica Vranešević, Dragoslav Pavić, and Emilija Nikolić-Đorić. 2019. “SPEI-Based Approach to Agricultural Drought Monitoring in Vojvodina Region.” Water 11 (7): 1481. doi:10.3390/w11071481.
  • Blain, Gabriel Constantino, Ana Maria H. de Avila, and Vânia Rosa Pereira. 2018. “Using the Normality Assumption to Calculate Probability‐Based Standardized Drought Indices: Selection Criteria with Emphases on Typical Events.” International Journal of Climatology 38: e418–36–e436. doi:10.1002/joc.5381.
  • Bonsai, Barrie R., and Elaine E. Wheaton. 2005. “Atmospheric Circulation Comparisons between the 2001 and 2002 and the 1961 and 1988 Canadian Prairie Droughts.” Atmosphere-Ocean 43 (2): 163–172. doi:10.3137/ao.430204.
  • Bonsal, B. R., A. K. Chakravarti, and R. G. Lawford. 1993. “Teleconnections between North Pacific SST Anomalies and Growing Season Extended Dry Spells on the Canadian Prairies.” International Journal of Climatology 13 (8): 865–878. doi:10.1002/joc.3370130805.
  • Bonsal, Barrie, Zhuo Liu, Elaine Wheaton, and Ronald Stewart. 2020. “Historical and Projected Changes to the Stages and Other Characteristics of Severe Canadian Prairie Droughts.” Water 12 (12): 3370. doi:10.3390/w12123370.
  • Bonsal, Barrie R., and Charles Cuell. 2017. “Hydro-Climatic Variability and Extremes over the Athabasca River Basin: Historical Trends and Projected Future Occurrence.” Canadian Water Resources Journal / Revue Canadienne Des Ressources Hydriques 42 (4): 315–335. doi:10.1080/07011784.2017.1328288.
  • Bonsal, Barrie R., Charles Cuell, Elaine Wheaton, David J. Sauchyn, and Elaine Barrow. 2017. “An Assessment of Historical and Projected Future Hydro‐Climatic Variability and Extremes over Southern Watersheds in the Canadian Prairies.” International Journal of Climatology 37 (10): 3934–3948. doi:10.1002/joc.4967.
  • Bonsal, Barrie R., Elaine E. Wheaton, Aston C. Chipanshi, Charles Lin, David J. Sauchyn, and Lei Wen. 2011. “Drought Research in Canada: A Review.” Atmosphere-Ocean 49 (4): 303–319. doi:10.1080/07055900.2011.555103.
  • Booth, Robert K., Michael Notaro, Stephen T. Jackson, and John E. Kutzbach. 2006. “Widespread Drought Episodes in the Western Great Lakes Region during the past 2000 Years: Geographic Extent and Potential Mechanisms.” Earth and Planetary Science Letters 242 (3-4): 415–427. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2005.12.028.
  • Bush, E., and D. S. Lemmen. 2019. Canada’s Changing Climate Report; Government of Canada, Ottawa, ON. 444 p.”
  • ClimateData.ca. 2022. “Climate Data for a Resilient Canada.” https://climatedata.ca/.
  • Cook, Benjamin I., Justin S. Mankin, and Kevin J. Anchukaitis. 2018. “Climate Change and Drought: From past to Future.” Current Climate Change Reports 4 (2): 164–179. doi:10.1007/s40641-018-0093-2.
  • Cook, Benjamin I., Jason E. Smerdon, Richard Seager, and Sloan Coats. 2014. “Global Warming and 21st Century Drying.” Climate Dynamics 43 (9-10): 2607–2627. doi:10.1007/s00382-014-2075-y.
  • Dai, Aiguo. 2013. “Increasing Drought under Global Warming in Observations and Models.” Nature Climate Change 3 (1): 52–58. doi:10.1038/nclimate1633.
  • Dey, B. 1982. “Nature and Possible Causes of Droughts on the Canadian Prairies‐Case Studies.” Journal of Climatology 2 (3): 233–249. doi:10.1002/joc.3370020303.
  • Dibike, Yonas, Terry Prowse, Barrie Bonsal, and Hayley O'Neil. 2017. “Implications of Future Climate on Water Availability in the Western Canadian River Basins.” International Journal of Climatology 37 (7): 3247–3263. doi:10.1002/joc.4912.
  • Douville, Hervé, Krishnan Raghavan, James Renwick, Richard P. Allan, Paola A. Arias, Mathew Barlow, Ruth Cerezo-Mota, Annalisa Cherchi, Thian Y. Gan, and Joëlle Gergis. 2021. “Water Cycle Changes.”
  • Droogers, Peter, and Richard G. Allen. 2002. “Estimating Reference Evapotranspiration under Inaccurate Data Conditions.” Irrigation and Drainage Systems 16 (1): 33–45. doi:10.1023/A:1015508322413.
  • Environment and Climate Change Canada. 2022. “Canadian Climate Data and Scenarios.” https://climate-scenarios.canada.ca.
  • Flato, Gregory, Jochem Marotzke, Babatunde Abiodun, Pascale Braconnot, Sin Chan Chou, William Collins, Peter Cox, Fatima Driouech, Seita Emori, and Veronika Eyring. 2014. “Evaluation of Climate Models.” In Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 741–866. United States of America: Cambridge University Press.
  • Gabriel, Anthony O., and Reid D. Kreutzwiser. 1993. “Drought Hazard in Ontario: A Review of Impacts, 1960–1989, and Management Implications.” Canadian Water Resources Journal 18 (2): 117–132. doi:10.4296/cwrj1802117.
  • Gurrapu, Sunil, Aston Chipanshi, David Sauchyn, and Allan Howard. 2014. “Comparison of the SPI and SPEI on Predicting Drought Conditions and Streamflow in the Canadian Prairies.” In Proceedings of the 28th Conference on Hydrology, 2–6. American Meteorological Society Atlanta, USA.
  • Gurrapu, Sunil, Kyle R. Hodder, David J. Sauchyn, and Jeannine Marie St. Jacques. 2021. “Assessment of the Ability of the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI) to Model Historical Streamflow in Watersheds of Western Canada.” Canadian Water Resources Journal / Revue Canadienne Des Ressources Hydriques 46 (1-2): 52–72. doi:10.1080/07011784.2021.1896390.
  • Guttman, Nathaniel B. 1994. “On the Sensitivity of Sample L Moments to Sample Size.” Journal of Climate 7 (6): 1026–1029. doi:10.1175/1520-0442(1994)007<1026:OTSOSL>2.0.CO;2.
  • Guttman, Nathaniel B. 1999. “Accepting the Standardized Precipitation Index: A Calculation Algorithm 1.” JAWRA Journal of the American Water Resources Association 35 (2): 311–322. doi:10.1111/j.1752-1688.1999.tb03592.x.
  • Hagedorn, Renate, Francisco J. Doblas-Reyes, and Tim N. Palmer. 2005. “The Rationale behind the Success of Multi-Model Ensembles in Seasonal Forecasting—I. Basic Concept.” Tellus A: Dynamic Meteorology and Oceanography 57 (3): 219–233.
  • Hamal, Kalpana, Shankar Sharma, Binod Pokharel, Dibas Shrestha, Rocky Talchabhadel, Alen Shrestha, and Nitesh Khadka. 2021. “Changing Pattern of Drought in Nepal and Associated Atmospheric Circulation.” Atmospheric Research 262: 105798. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2021.105798.
  • Hargreaves, George H. 1994. “Defining and Using Reference Evapotranspiration.” Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering 120 (6): 1132–1139. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9437(1994)120:6(1132).
  • Hargreaves, George H., and Richard G. Allen. 2003. “History and Evaluation of Hargreaves Evapotranspiration Equation.” Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering 129 (1): 53–63. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9437(2003)129:1(53).
  • Hargreaves, George H., and Zohrab A. Samani. 1985. “Reference Crop Evapotranspiration from Temperature.” Applied Engineering in Agriculture 1 (2): 96–99. doi:10.13031/2013.26773.
  • Hayes, Michael, Mark Svoboda, Nicole Wall, and Melissa Widhalm. 2011. “The Lincoln Declaration on Drought Indices: Universal Meteorological Drought Index Recommended.” Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 92 (4): 485–488. doi:10.1175/2010BAMS3103.1.
  • Hogg, E. H., and Ross W. Wein. 2005. “Impacts of Drought on Forest Growth and Regeneration following Fire in Southwestern Yukon.” Canadian Journal of Forest Research 35 (9): 2141–2150. doi:10.1139/x05-120.
  • Homdee, Tipaporn, Kobkiat Pongput, and Shinjiro Kanae. 2016. “A Comparative Performance Analysis of Three Standardized Climatic Drought Indices in the Chi River Basin.” Thailand.” Agriculture and Natural Resources 50 (3): 211–219. doi:10.1016/j.anres.2016.02.002.
  • Jeong, Dae Il., Laxmi Sushama, and M. Naveed Khaliq. 2014. “The Role of Temperature in Drought Projections over North America.” Climatic Change 127 (2): 289–303. doi:10.1007/s10584-014-1248-3.
  • Kingston, Daniel G., James H. Stagge, Lena M. Tallaksen, and David M. Hannah. 2015. “European-Scale Drought: Understanding Connections between Atmospheric Circulation and Meteorological Drought Indices.” Journal of Climate 28 (2): 505–516. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00001.1.
  • Ma, Bin., Bo Zhang, Lige Jia, and Hao Huang. 2020. “Conditional Distribution Selection for SPEI-Daily and Its Revealed Meteorological Drought Characteristics in China from 1961 to 2017.” Atmospheric Research 246: 105108. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2020.105108.
  • Maloney, Eric D., Suzana J. Camargo, Edmund Chang, Brian Colle, Rong Fu, Kerrie L. Geil, Qi Hu, et al. 2014. “North American Climate in CMIP5 Experiments: Part III: Assessment of Twenty-First-Century Projections.” Journal of Climate 27 (6): 2230–2270. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-13-00273.1.
  • Masson-Delmotte, Valérie, Panmao Zhai, Anna Pirani, Sarah L. Connors, Clotilde Péan, Sophie Berger, Nada Caud, et al., eds. 2021. IPCC, 2021: Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press, 2391 pp. doi:10.1017/9781009157896.
  • McKee, Thomas B., Nolan J. Doesken, and John Kleist. 1993. “The Relationship of Drought Frequency and Duration to Time Scales.” In Proceedings of the 8th Conference on Applied Climatology, 17:179–183. Boston, MA, USA.
  • Neto, Meira, Antônio Alves, Guo-Yue Niu, Tirthankar Roy, Scott Tyler, and Peter A. Troch. 2020. “Interactions between Snow Cover and Evaporation Lead to Higher Sensitivity of Streamflow to Temperature.” Communications Earth & Environment 1 (1): 1–7.
  • Monish, N. T., and S. Rehana. 2020. “Suitability of Distributions for Standard Precipitation and Evapotranspiration Index over Meteorologically Homogeneous Zones of India.” Journal of Earth System Science 129 (1): 1–19. doi:10.1007/s12040-019-1271-x.
  • Mueller, Brigitte, and Xuebin Zhang. 2016. “Causes of Drying Trends in Northern Hemispheric Land Areas in Reconstructed Soil Moisture Data.” Climatic Change 134 (1-2): 255–267. doi:10.1007/s10584-015-1499-7.
  • PaiMazumder, Debasish, Laxmi Sushama, René Laprise, M. Naveed Khaliq, and Dave Sauchyn. 2013. “Canadian RCM Projected Changes to Short‐and Long‐Term Drought Characteristics over the Canadian Prairies.” International Journal of Climatology 33 (6): 1409–1423. doi:10.1002/joc.3521.
  • Panu, U. S., and T. C. Sharma. 2009. “Analysis of Annual Hydrological Droughts: The Case of Northwest Ontario.” Canada.” Hydrological Sciences Journal 54 (1): 29–42. doi:10.1623/hysj.54.1.29.
  • Peacock, Synte. 2012. “Projected Twenty-First-Century Changes in Temperature, Precipitation, and Snow Cover over North America in CCSM4.” Journal of Climate 25 (13): 4405–4429. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-11-00214.1.
  • Persaud, Bhaleka D., Laura E. Chasmer, William L. Quinton, Brent B. Wolfe, and Michael C. English. 2022. “Sensitivity of Seasonal Air Temperature and Precipitation, and Onset of Snowmelt, to Arctic Dipole Modes across the Taiga Plains, Northwest Territories, Canada.” International Journal of Climatology 42 (16): 9182–9199. doi:10.1002/joc.7810.
  • Pieper, Patrick, André Düsterhus, and Johanna Baehr. 2020. “A Universal Standardized Precipitation Index Candidate Distribution Function for Observations and Simulations.” Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 24 (9): 4541–4565. doi:10.5194/hess-24-4541-2020.
  • Prowse, Terry D., Chris Furgal, Barrie R. Bonsal, and Thomas W. D. Edwards. 2009. “Climatic Conditions in Northern Canada: Past and Future.” AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment 38 (5): 257–265. doi:10.1579/0044-7447-38.5.257.
  • R Core Team. 2022. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. Vienna, Austria. https://www.R-project.org/.
  • Schulzweida, Uwe. 2022. “CDO User Guide (Version Version 2.0.3).” doi:10.5281/zenodo.5614769.
  • Semenov, Mikhail A., and Pierre Stratonovitch. 2010. “Use of Multi-Model Ensembles from Global Climate Models for Assessment of Climate Change Impacts.” Climate Research 41 (1): 1–14. doi:10.3354/cr00836.
  • Seneviratne, Sonia, Neville Nicholls, David Easterling, Clare Goodess, Shinjiro Kanae, James Kossin, Yali Luo, Jose Marengo, Kathleen McInnes, and Mohammad Rahimi. 2012. “Changes in Climate Extremes and Their Impacts on the Natural Physical Environment.”
  • Shabbar, Amir, and Walter Skinner. 2004. “Summer Drought Patterns in Canada and the Relationship Toglobal Sea Surface Temperatures.” Journal of Climate 17 (14): 2866–2880. doi:10.1175/1520-0442(2004)017<2866:SDPICA>2.0.CO;2.
  • Sienz, Frank, Oliver Bothe, and Klaus Fraedrich. 2012. “Monitoring and Quantifying Future Climate Projections of Dryness and Wetness Extremes: SPI Bias.” Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 16 (7): 2143–2157. doi:10.5194/hess-16-2143-2012.
  • Stagge, James H., Lena M. Tallaksen, Lukas Gudmundsson, Anne F. Van Loon, and Kerstin Stahl. 2015. “Candidate Distributions for Climatological Drought Indices (SPI and SPEI).” International Journal of Climatology 35 (13): 4027–4040. doi:10.1002/joc.4267.
  • Stagge, James H., Lena M. Tallaksen, Lukas Gudmundsson, Anne F. Van Loon, and Kerstin Stahl. 2016. “Response to Comment on ‘Candidate Distributions for Climatological Drought Indices (SPI and SPEI).” International Journal of Climatology 36 (4): 2132–2138. doi:10.1002/joc.4564.
  • Stewart, Ronald E., Kit K. Szeto, Barrie R. Bonsal, John M. Hanesiak, Bohdan Kochtubajda, Yanping Li, Julie M. Thériault, et al. 2019. “Summary and Synthesis of Changing Cold Regions Network (CCRN) Research in the Interior of Western Canada–Part 1: Projected Climate and Meteorology.” Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 23 (8): 3437–3455. doi:10.5194/hess-23-3437-2019.
  • Suroso, Suroso, Dede Nadhilah, Ardiansyah Ardiansyah, and Edvin Aldrian. 2021. “Drought Detection in Java Island Based on Standardized Precipitation and Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI).” Journal of Water and Climate Change 12 (6): 2734–2752. doi:10.2166/wcc.2021.022.
  • Svensson, Cecilia, Jamie Hannaford, and Ilaria Prosdocimi. 2017. “Statistical Distributions for Monthly Aggregations of Precipitation and Streamflow in Drought Indicator Applications.” Water Resources Research 53 (2): 999–1018. doi:10.1002/2016WR019276.
  • Swain, Sharmistha, and Katharine Hayhoe. 2015. “CMIP5 Projected Changes in Spring and Summer Drought and Wet Conditions over North America.” Climate Dynamics 44 (9-10): 2737–2750. doi:10.1007/s00382-014-2255-9.
  • Tam, Benita Y., Kit Szeto, Barrie Bonsal, Greg Flato, Alex J. Cannon, and Robin Rong. 2019. “CMIP5 Drought Projections in Canada Based on the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index.” Canadian Water Resources Journal / Revue Canadienne Des Ressources Hydriques 44 (1): 90–107. doi:10.1080/07011784.2018.1537812.
  • Tan, Chunping, Jianping Yang, and Man Li. 2015. “Temporal-Spatial Variation of Drought Indicated by SPI and SPEI in Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, China.” Atmosphere 6 (10): 1399–1421. doi:10.3390/atmos6101399.
  • Taylor, Karl E., Ronald J. Stouffer, and Gerald A. Meehl. 2012. “An Overview of CMIP5 and the Experiment Design.” Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 93 (4): 485–98.
  • Touma, Danielle, Moetasim Ashfaq, Munir A. Nayak, Shih-Chieh Kao, and Noah S. Diffenbaugh. 2015. “A Multi-Model and Multi-Index Evaluation of Drought Characteristics in the 21st Century.” Journal of Hydrology 526: 196–207. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.12.011.
  • Vicente-Serrano, Sergio M. 2006. “Spatial and Temporal Analysis of Droughts in the Iberian Peninsula (1910–2000).” Hydrological Sciences Journal 51 (1): 83–97. doi:10.1623/hysj.51.1.83.
  • Vicente‐Serrano, Sergio M., and Santiago Beguería. 2016. “Comment on ‘Candidate Distributions for Climatological Drought Indices (SPI and SPEI)’by James H. Stagge et Al.” International Journal of Climatology 36 (4): 2120–2131. doi:10.1002/joc.4474.
  • Vicente-Serrano, Sergio M., Santiago Beguería, and Juan I. López-Moreno. 2010. “A Multiscalar Drought Index Sensitive to Global Warming: The Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index.” Journal of Climate 23 (7): 1696–1718. doi:10.1175/2009JCLI2909.1.
  • Vicente-Serrano, Sergio M., Santiago Beguería, Juan I. López-Moreno, Marta Angulo, and Ahmed El Kenawy. 2010. “A New Global 0.5 Gridded Dataset (1901–2006) of a Multiscalar Drought Index: Comparison with Current Drought Index Datasets Based on the Palmer Drought Severity Index.” Journal of Hydrometeorology 11 (4): 1033–1043. doi:10.1175/2010JHM1224.1.
  • Vincent, Lucie A., Megan M. Hartwell, and Xiaolan L. Wang. 2020. “A Third Generation of Homogenized Temperature for Trend Analysis and Monitoring Changes in Canada’s Climate.” Atmosphere-Ocean 58 (3): 173–191. doi:10.1080/07055900.2020.1765728.
  • Wang, Huaijun, Yaning Chen, Yingping Pan, Zhongsheng Chen, and Zhiguo Ren. 2019. “Assessment of Candidate Distributions for SPI/SPEI and Sensitivity of Drought to Climatic Variables in China.” International Journal of Climatology 39 (11): 4392–4412. doi:10.1002/joc.6081.
  • Wang, Yingying, Zhiliang Wang, Zezhong Zhang, Dongfang Shen, and Ling Zhang. 2021. “The Best-Fitting Distribution of Water Balance and the Spatiotemporal Characteristics of Drought in Guizhou Province.” Theoretical and Applied Climatology 143 (3-4): 1097–1112. doi:10.1007/s00704-020-03469-w.
  • Wang, Yonghe, Edward H. Hogg, David T. Price, Jason Edwards, and Tim Williamson. 2014. “Past and Projected Future Changes in Moisture Conditions in the Canadian Boreal Forest.” The Forestry Chronicle 90 (05): 678–691. doi:10.5558/tfc2014-134.
  • Wehner, Michael F., Jeff R. Arnold, Thomas Knutson, Kenneth E. Kunkel, and Allegra N. LeGrande. 2017. “Droughts, Floods, and Wildfires.” Climate Science Special Report: Fourth National Climate Assessment 1(GSFC-E-DAA-TN49033), 231–256.
  • Wheaton, Elaine, Suren Kulshreshtha, Virginia Wittrock, and Grace Koshida. 2008. “Dry Times: Hard Lessons from the Canadian Drought of 2001 and 2002.” The Canadian Geographer / Le Géographe Canadien 52 (2): 241–262. doi:10.1111/j.1541-0064.2008.00211.x.
  • World Meteorological Organization 2006. Drought Monitoring and Early Warning: Concepts, Progress, and Future Challenges. Geneva, Switzerland: World Meteorological Organization.
  • Wu, Hong, Mark D. Svoboda, Michael J. Hayes, Donald A. Wilhite, and Fujiang Wen. 2007. “Appropriate Application of the Standardized Precipitation Index in Arid Locations and Dry Seasons.” International Journal of Climatology 27 (1): 65–79. doi:10.1002/joc.1371.
  • Yang, Yang, Thian Yew Gan, and Xuezhi Tan. 2020. “Spatiotemporal Changes of Drought Characteristics and Their Dynamic Drivers in Canada.” Atmospheric Research 232: 104695. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2019.104695.
  • Yang, Yang, Thian Yew Gan, and Xuezhi Tan. 2021. “Recent Changing Characteristics of Dry and Wet Spells in Canada.” Climatic Change 165 (3-4): 42. doi:10.1007/s10584-021-03046-8.
  • Yimer, Estifanos Addisu, Bert Van Schaeybroeck, Hans Van de Vyver, and Ann Van Griensven. 2022. “Evaluating Probability Distribution Functions for the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index over Ethiopia.” Atmosphere 13 (3): 364. doi:10.3390/atmos13030364.
  • Yusa, Anna, Peter Berry, June J. Cheng, Nicholas Ogden, Barrie Bonsal, Ronald Stewart, and Ruth Waldick. 2015. “Climate Change, Drought and Human Health in Canada.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 12 (7): 8359–8412. doi:10.3390/ijerph120708359.
  • Zhao, Cha., François Brissette, Jie Chen, and Jean-Luc Martel. 2020. “Frequency Change of Future Extreme Summer Meteorological and Hydrological Droughts over North America.” Journal of Hydrology 584: 124316. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.124316.
  • Zhao, Tianbao, and Aiguo Dai. 2015. “The Magnitude and Causes of Global Drought Changes in the Twenty-First Century under a Low–Moderate Emissions Scenario.” Journal of Climate 28 (11): 4490–4512. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00363.1.
  • Zhao, Tianbao, and Aiguo Dai. 2022. “CMIP6 Model-Projected Hydroclimatic and Drought Changes and Their Causes in the Twenty-First Century.” Journal of Climate 35 (3): 897–921.
  • Zhou, Xiong, Guohe Huang, Brian W. Baetz, Xiuquan Wang, and Guanhui Cheng. 2018. “PRECIS‐Projected Increases in Temperature and Precipitation over Canada.” Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 144 (711): 588–603. doi:10.1002/qj.3231.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.