Combating COVID-19 and Building Immune Resilience: A Potential Role for Magnesium Nutrition?

References

• Johns Hopkins University. COVID-19 Dashboard by the Center for Systems Science and Engineering. Coronavirus Resource Center; 2020 Apr 21 [accessed 2020 Apr 21]. https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/map.html.
   Google Scholar
• Martindale R, Patel JJ, Taylor B, Warren M, McClave SA. Nutrition therapy in the patient with COVID-19 disease requiring ICU care: joint recommendations from SCCM and ASPEN. Crit Care Med.; 2020 [accessed 2020 Apr 21]. https://www.sccm.org/getattachment/Disaster/Nutrition-Therapy-COVID-19-SCCM-ASPEN.pdf?lang=en-US
   Google Scholar
• Laviano A, Koverech A, Zanetti M. Nutrition support in the time of SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19). Nutrition. 2020;74:110834. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2020.110834.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mehta P, McAuley DF, Brown M, Sanchez E, Tattersall RS, Manson JJ. COVID-19: consider cytokine storm syndromes and immunosuppression. Lancet. 2020;395(10229):1033–4. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30628-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen D, Li X, Qifa s, Hu C, Su F, Dai J. Hypokalemia and clinical implications in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Infectious Diseases (except HIV/AIDS). 2020. doi:10.1101/2020.02.27.20028530.
   Google Scholar
• Mousavizadeh L, Ghasemi S. Genotype and phenotype of COVID-19: their roles in pathogenesis. J Microbiol Immunol Infect. 2020. doi:10.1016/j.jmii.2020.03.022.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Paules CI, Marston HD, Fauci AS. Coronavirus infections—more than just the common cold. JAMA. 2020;323(8):707. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.0757.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salata C, Calistri A, Parolin C, Palù G. Coronaviruses: a paradigm of new emerging zoonotic diseases. Pathog Dis. 2019;77(9). doi:10.1093/femspd/ftaa006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. Coronaviruses; 2020 [accessed 2020 Apr 13]. https://www.niaid.nih.gov/diseases-conditions/coronaviruses.
   Google Scholar
• de Wit E, van Doremalen N, Falzarano D, Munster VJ. SARS and MERS: recent insights into emerging coronaviruses. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2016;14(8):523–34. doi:10.1038/nrmicro.2016.81.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruan Q, Yang K, Wang W, Jiang L, Song J. Clinical predictors of mortality due to COVID-19 based on an analysis of data of 150 patients from Wuhan, China. Intensive Care Med. 2020;46(6):1294–7. doi:10.1007/s00134-020-05991-x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamming I, Timens W, Bulthuis M, Lely A, Navis G, van Goor H. Tissue distribution of ACE2 protein, the functional receptor for SARS coronavirus. A first step in understanding SARS pathogenesis. J Pathol. 2004;203(2):631–7. doi:10.1002/path.1570.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ciaglia E, Vecchione C, Puca AA. COVID-19 infection and circulating ACE2 levels: protective role in women and children. Front Pediatr. 2020;8. doi:10.3389/fped.2020.00206.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu H, Zhong L, Deng J, Peng J, Dan H, Zeng X, Li T, Chen Q. High expression of ACE2 receptor of 2019-nCoV on the epithelial cells of oral mucosa. Int J Oral Sci. 2020;12(1):8. doi:10.1038/s41368-020-0074-x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zou X, Chen K, Zou J, Han P, Hao J, Han Z. Single-cell RNA-seq data analysis on the receptor ACE2 expression reveals the potential risk of different human organs vulnerable to 2019-nCoV infection. Front Med. 2020;14(2):185–92. doi:10.1007/s11684-020-0754-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao Y, Zhao Z, Wang Y, Zhou Y, Ma Y, Zuo W. Single-cell RNA expression profiling of ACE2, the receptor of SARS-CoV-2. Bioinformatics. 2020. doi:10.1101/2020.01.26.919985.
   Google Scholar
• Zhang H, Kang Z, Gong H, et al. The digestive system is a potential route of 2019-NCov infection: A bioinformatics analysis based on single-cell transcriptomes. Microbiology. 2020. doi:10.1101/2020.01.30.927806.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• World Health Organization. Coronavirus disease (COVID-2019) R&D; 2020 [accessed 2020 Apr 13]. https://www.who.int/blueprint/priority-diseases/key-action/novel-coronavirus/en/.
   Google Scholar
• Dandona P, Dhindsa S, Ghanim H, Chaudhuri A. Angiotensin II and inflammation: the effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition and angiotensin II receptor blockade. J Hum Hypertens. 2007;21(1):20–7. doi:10.1038/sj.jhh.1002101.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang C, Wu Z, Li J-W, Zhao H, Wang G-Q. The cytokine release syndrome (CRS) of severe COVID-19 and interleukin-6 receptor (IL-6R) antagonist Tocilizumab may be the key to reduce the mortality. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2020;55(5):105954. doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105954.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leiva-Juárez MM, Kolls JK, Evans SE. Lung epithelial cells: therapeutically inducible effectors of antimicrobial defense. Mucosal Immunol. 2018;11(1):21–34. doi:10.1038/mi.2017.71.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knudsen L, Ochs M. The micromechanics of lung alveoli: structure and function of surfactant and tissue components. Histochem Cell Biol. 2018;150(6):661–76. doi:10.1007/s00418-018-1747-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brune K, Frank J, Schwingshackl A, Finigan J, Sidhaye VK. Pulmonary epithelial barrier function: some new players and mechanisms. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2015;308(8):L731–45. doi:10.1152/ajplung.00309.2014.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunter CA, Jones SA. IL-6 as a keystone cytokine in health and disease. Nat Immunol. 2015;16(5):448–57. doi:10.1038/ni.3153.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castilletti C, Bordi L, Lalle E, Rozera G, Poccia F, Agrati C, Abbate I, Capobianchi MR. Coordinate induction of IFN-alpha and -gamma by SARS-CoV also in the absence of virus replication. Virology. 2005;341(1):163–9. doi:10.1016/j.virol.2005.07.015.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shi S-Q, Peng J-P, Li Y-C, Qin C, Liang G-D, Xu L, Yang Y, Wang J-L, Sun Q-H. The expression of membrane protein augments the specific responses induced by SARS-CoV nucleocapsid DNA immunization. Mol Immunol. 2006;43(11):1791–8. doi:10.1016/j.molimm.2005.11.005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tseng C-T, Perrone LA, Zhu H, Makino S, Peters CJ. Severe acute respiratory syndrome and the innate immune responses: modulation of effector cell function without productive infection. J Immunol. 2005;174(12):7977–85. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.174.12.7977.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Navarro G, Taroumian S, Barroso N, Duan L, Furst D. Tocilizumab in rheumatoid arthritis: a meta-analysis of efficacy and selected clinical conundrums. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 2014;43(4):458–69. doi:10.1016/j.semarthrit.2013.08.001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yokota S, Miyamae T, Imagawa T, Iwata N, Katakura S, Mori M, Woo P, Nishimoto N, Yoshizaki K, Kishimoto T, et al. Therapeutic efficacy of humanized recombinant anti-interleukin-6 receptor antibody in children with systemic-onset juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2005;52(3):818–25. doi:10.1002/art.20944.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, Ren L, Zhao J, Hu Y, Zhang L, Fan G, Xu J, Gu X, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet. 2020;395(10223):497–506. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ye Q, Wang B, Mao J. The pathogenesis and treatment of the ‘cytokine storm’ in COVID-19. J Infect. 2020;80(6):607–13. doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2020.03.037.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beisel WR. Herman Award Lecture, 1995: infection-induced malnutrition-from cholera to cytokines. Am J Clin Nutr. 1995;62(4):813–9. doi:10.1093/ajcn/62.4.813.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grimble RF. Basics in clinical nutrition: main cytokines and their effect during injury and sepsis. e-SPEN Eur e-J Clin Nutr Metab. 2008;3(6):e289–92. doi:10.1016/j.eclnm.2008.07.002.
   Google Scholar
• Institute of Medicine (US) Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes. Dietary reference intakes for calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, vitamin D, and fluoride. National Academies Press (US); 1997 [accessed 2019 Sep 30]. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK109825/.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Nutrient assessment for DRI review; 2014 [accessed 2020 Apr 13]. https://health.gov/our-work/food-nutrition/dietary-reference-intakes-dris/nutrient-assessment-dri-review.
   Google Scholar
• de Baaij JHF, Hoenderop JGJ, Bindels R. Magnesium in man: implications for health and disease. Physiol Rev. 2015;95(1):1–46. doi:10.1152/physrev.00012.2014.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bairoch A. The ENZYME database in 2000. Nucleic Acids Res. 2000;28(1):304–5. doi:10.1093/nar/28.1.304.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caspi R, Altman T, Dreher K, Fulcher CA, Subhraveti P, Keseler IM, Kothari A, Krummenacker M, Latendresse M, Mueller LA, et al. The MetaCyc database of metabolic pathways and enzymes and the BioCyc collection of pathway/genome databases. Nucleic Acids Res. 2012;40(Database issue):D742–53. doi:10.1093/nar/gkr1014.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Elin RJ. Assessment of magnesium status. Clin Chem. 1987;33(11):1965–70.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wallach S. Availability of body magnesium during magnesium deficiency. Magnesium. 1988;7(5-6):262–70.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Elin RJ. Laboratory tests for the assessment of magnesium status in humans. Magnes Trace Elem. 1991;10(2-4):172–81.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Costello RB, Elin RJ, Rosanoff A, Wallace TC, Guerrero-Romero F, Hruby A, Lutsey PL, Nielsen FH, Rodriguez-Moran M, Song Y, et al. Perspective: the case for an evidence-based reference interval for serum magnesium: the time has come. Adv Nutr. 2016;7(6):977–93. doi:10.3945/an.116.012765.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kielstein JT, David S. Magnesium: the “earth cure” of AKI? Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2013;28(4):785–7. doi:10.1093/ndt/gfs347.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vormann J. Magnesium: nutrition and metabolism. Mol Aspects Med. 2003;24(1-3):27–37. doi:10.1016/S0098-2997(02)00089-4.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cao S, Hodges JK, McCabe LD, Weaver CM. Magnesium requirements in children: recommendations for reevaluation and comparison with current evidence for adults. Nutr Today. 2019;54(5):195–206. doi:10.1097/NT.0000000000000363.
   Google Scholar
• Moshfegh AJ, Goldman J, Ahuja J, Rhodes D, Lacomb R. What we eat in America, NHANES 2005-2006, usual nutrient intakes from food and water compared to 1997 dietary reference intakes for vitamin D, calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Research Service; 2009 [accessed 2019 Aug 1]. https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/80400530/pdf/0506/usual_nutrient_intake_vitD_ca_phos_mg_2005-06.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization, ed. Calcium and magnesium in drinking-water: public health significance. Geneva‎, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2009.
   Google Scholar
• Fryar CD, Gu Q, Ogden CL, Flegal KM. Anthropometric reference data for children and adults: United States, 2011-2014. Vital Health Stat. 2016;3(39):1–46.
   Google Scholar
• Fryar CD, Kruszon-Moran D, Gu Q, Ogden CL. Mean body weight, height, waist circumference, and body mass index among adults: United States, 1999-2000 through 2015-2016. Natl Health Stat Rep. 2018;(122):1–16.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ford ES, Mokdad AH. Dietary magnesium intake in a national sample of U.S. adults. J Nutr. 2003;133(9):2879–82. doi:10.1093/jn/133.9.2879.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rude RK, Kirchen ME, Gruber HE, Stasky AA, Meyer MH. Clinical manifestations of magnesium deficiency. Mineral Electrolyte Metab. 1998;24 (5):314–22. doi:10.1159/000057389.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zhan J, Wallace TC, Butts SJ, Cao S, Ansu V, Spence LA, Weaver CM, Gletsu-Miller N. Circulating ionized magnesium as a measure of supplement bioavailability: results from a pilot study for randomized clinical trial. Nutrients. 2020;12(5):1245. doi:10.3390/nu12051245.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soliman HM, Mercan D, Lobo SSM, Mélot C, Vincent J-L. Development of ionized hypomagnesemia is associated with higher mortality rates. Crit Care Med. 2003;31(4):1082–7. doi:10.1097/01.CCM.0000060867.17556.A0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reinhart RA, Desbiens NA. Hypomagnesemia in patients entering the ICU. Crit Care Med. 1985;13(6):506–7. doi:10.1097/00003246-198506000-00015.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ryzen E, Wagers PW, Singer FR, Rude RK. Magnesium deficiency in a medical ICU population. Crit Care Med. 1985;13(1):19–21. doi:10.1097/00003246-198501000-00006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubeiz GJ, Thill-Baharozian M, Hardie D, Carlson RW. Association of hypomagnesemia and mortality in acutely ill medical patients. Crit Care Med. 1993;21(2):203–9. doi:10.1097/00003246-199302000-00010.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huijgen HJ, Soesan M, Sanders R, Mairuhu WM, Kesecioglu J, Sanders GT. Magnesium levels in critically ill patients. What should we measure? Am J Clin Pathol. 2000;114(5):688–95. doi:10.1309/JR9Y-PPTX-AJTC-QDRD.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chernow B, Bamberger S, Stoiko M, Vadnais M, Mills S, Hoellerich V, Warshaw AL. Hypomagnesemia in patients in postoperative intensive care. Chest. 1989;95(2):391–7. doi:10.1378/chest.95.2.391.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guérin C, Cousin C, Mignot F, Manchon M, Fournier G. Serum and erythrocyte magnesium in critically ill patients. Intensive Care Med. 1996;22(8):724–7. doi:10.1007/BF01709512.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fiser RT, Torres A, Butch AW, Valentine JL. Ionized magnesium concentrations in critically ill children. Crit Care Med. 1998;26(12):2048–52. doi:10.1097/00003246-199812000-00039.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ross AC, Caballero B, Cousins RJ, Tucker KL, Ziegler TR. Modern nutrition in health and disease. Wolters Kluwer Health; 2012 [accessed 2020 Apr 13]. https://library.biblioboard.com/content/d7522477-6f1f-4adf-902e-e4d1d17099a5.
   Google Scholar
• Nielsen FH. Magnesium, inflammation, and obesity in chronic disease. Nutr Rev. 2010;68(6):333–40. doi:10.1111/j.1753-4887.2010.00293.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mazidi M, Rezaie P, Banach M. Effect of magnesium supplements on serum C-reactive protein: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Archiv Med Sci. 2018;14(4):707–16. doi:10.5114/aoms.2018.75719.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simental-Mendia LE, Sahebkar A, Rodriguez-Moran M, Zambrano-Galvan G, Guerrero-Romero F. Effect of magnesium supplementation on plasma C-reactive protein concentrations: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Curr Pharm Des. 2017;23(31):4678–86. doi:10.2174/1381612823666170525153605.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Afshar Ebrahimi F, Foroozanfard F, Aghadavod E, Bahmani F, Asemi Z. The effects of magnesium and zinc co-supplementation on biomarkers of inflammation and oxidative stress, and gene expression related to inflammation in polycystic ovary syndrome: a randomized controlled clinical trial. Biol Trace Elem Res. 2018;184(2):300–7. doi:10.1007/s12011-017-1198-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sugimoto J, Romani AM, Valentin-Torres AM, Luciano AA, Ramirez Kitchen CM, Funderburg N, Mesiano S, Bernstein HB. Magnesium decreases inflammatory cytokine production: a novel innate immunomodulatory mechanism. J Immunol. 2012;188(12):6338–46. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.1101765.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cairns CB, Krafi M. Magnesium attenuates the neutrophil respiratory burst in adult asthmatic patients. Acad Emerg Med. 1996;3(12):1093–7. doi:10.1111/j.1553-2712.1996.tb03366.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nielsen FH. Magnesium deficiency and increased inflammation: current perspectives. J Inflamm Res. 2018;11:25–34. doi:10.2147/JIR.S136742.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chacko SA, Song Y, Nathan L, Tinker L, de Boer IH, Tylavsky F, Wallace R, Liu S. Relations of dietary magnesium intake to biomarkers of inflammation and endothelial dysfunction in an ethnically diverse cohort of postmenopausal women. Diabetes Care. 2010;33(2):304–10. doi:10.2337/dc09-1402.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahalle N, Garg MK, Kulkarni MV, Naik SS. Relation of magnesium with insulin resistance and inflammatory markers in subjects with known Coronary artery disease. J Cardiovasc Dis Res. 2014;5(1):22–9. doi:10.5530/jcdr.2014.1.4.
   Google Scholar
• Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Standards for Systematic Reviews of Comparative Effectiveness Research. Finding what works in health care: standards for systematic reviews. (Eden J, Levit L, Berg A, Morton S, eds.). National Academies Press (US); 2011 [accessed 2020 Apr 14]. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK209518/.
   Google Scholar
• Bressendorff I, Hansen D, Pasch A. The effect of increasing dialysate magnesium on calciprotein particles, inflammation and bone markers: post hoc analysis from a randomized controlled clinical trial. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2019. https://www.cochranelibrary.com/central/doi/10.1002/central/CN-02005700/full.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rashvand S, Mobasseri M, Tarighat-Esfanjani A. The effects of choline and magnesium co-supplementation on metabolic parameters, inflammation, and endothelial dysfunction in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Am Coll Nutr. 2019;38(8):714–721. doi:10.1080/07315724.2019.1599745. https://www.cochranelibrary.com/central/doi/10.1002/central/CN-01941545/full.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Steward CJ, Zhou Y, Keane G, Cook MD, Liu Y, Cullen T. One week of magnesium supplementation lowers IL-6, muscle soreness and increases post-exercise blood glucose in response to downhill running. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2019;119(11-12):2617–27. doi:10.1007/s00421-019-04238-y.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dmitrasinovic G, Pesic V, Stanic D, Plecas-Solarovic B, Dajak M, Ignjatovic S. ACTH, cortisol and IL-6 levels in athletes following magnesium supplementation. J Med Biochem. 2016;35(4):375–84. doi:10.1515/jomb-2016-0021.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mojtahedzadeh M, Chelkeba L, Ranjvar-Shahrivar M, Najafi A, Moini M, Najmeddin F, Sadeghi K, Barkhordari K, Gheymati A, Ahmadi A, et al. Randomized trial of the effect of magnesium sulfate continuous infusion on IL-6 and CRP serum levels following abdominal aortic aneurysm surgery. Iran J Pharm Res. 2016;15(4):951–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zogović D, Pešić V, Dmitrašinović G, Dajak M, Plećaš B, Batinić B, Popović D, Ignjatović S. Pituitary-gonadal, pituitary-adrenocortical hormones and IL-6 levels following long-term magnesium supplementation in male students. J Med Biochem. 2014;33(3):291–8. doi:10.2478/jomb-2014-0016.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chung HS, Park CS, Hong SH, Lee S, Cho M-L, Her Y-M, Sa GJ, Lee J, Choi JH. Effects of magnesium pretreatment on the levels of T helper cytokines and on the severity of reperfusion syndrome in patients undergoing living donor liver transplantation. Magnes Res. 2013;26(2):46–55. doi:10.1684/mrh.2013.0338.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moslehi N, Vafa M, Rahimi-Foroushani A, Golestan B. Effects of oral magnesium supplementation on inflammatory markers in middle-aged overweight women. J Res Med Sci. 2012;17(7):607–14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muroi C, Burkhardt J-K, Hugelshofer M, Seule M, Mishima K, Keller E. Magnesium and the inflammatory response: potential pathophysiological implications in the management of patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage? Magnes Res. 2012;25(2):64–71. doi:10.1684/mrh.2012.0314.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simental-Mendía LE, Rodríguez-Morán M, Reyes-Romero MA, Guerrero-Romero F. No positive effect of oral magnesium supplementation in the decreases of inflammation in subjects with prediabetes: a pilot study. Magnes Res. 2012;25(3):140–6. doi:10.1684/mrh.2012.0322.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim DJ, Xun P, Liu K, Loria C, Yokota K, Jacobs DR, He K. Magnesium intake in relation to systemic inflammation, insulin resistance, and the incidence of diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2010;33(12):2604–10. doi:10.2337/dc10-0994.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shibata M, Ueshima K, Harada M, Nakamura M, Hiramori K, Endo S, Sato N, Mukaida H, Suzuki T, Suzuki T, et al. Effect of magnesium sulfate pretreatment and significance of matrix metalloproteinase-1 and interleukin-6 levels in coronary reperfusion therapy for patients with acute myocardial infarction. Angiology. 1999;50(7):573–82. doi:10.1177/000331979905000707.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silhol F, Sarlon G, Deharo J-C, Vaïsse B. Downregulation of ACE2 induces overstimulation of the renin–angiotensin system in COVID-19: should we block the renin–angiotensin system? Hypertens Res. 2020. doi:10.1038/s41440-020-0476-3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whang R, Whang DD, Ryan MP. Refractory potassium repletion. A consequence of magnesium deficiency. Arch Intern Med. 1992;152(1):40–5.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Huang C-L, Kuo E. Mechanism of hypokalemia in magnesium deficiency. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2007;18(10):2649–52. doi:10.1681/ASN.2007070792.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Veltri KT, Mason C. Medication-induced hypokalemia. P T Peer Rev J Formul Manag. 2015;40(3):185–90.
   Google Scholar
• Hammond DA, Stojakovic J, Kathe N, Tran J, Clem OA, Erbach K, King J. Effectiveness and safety of magnesium replacement in critically ill patients admitted to the medical intensive care unit in an academic medical center: a retrospective, cohort study. J Intensive Care Med. 2019;34(11-12):967–72. doi:10.1177/0885066617720631.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dickerson RN. Guidelines for the intravenous management of hypophosphatemia, hypomagnesemia, hypokalemia, and hypocalcemia. Hosp Pharm. 2001;36(11):1201–8. doi:10.1177/001857870103601111.
   Google Scholar
• Grant WB, Lahore H, McDonnell SL, Baggerly CA, French CB, Aliano JL, Bhattoa HP. Evidence that vitamin D supplementation could reduce risk of influenza and COVID-19 infections and deaths. Nutrients. 2020;12(4): 988. doi:10.3390/nu12040:988.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martineau AR, Jolliffe DA, Hooper RL, Greenberg L, Aloia JF, Bergman P, Dubnov-Raz G, Esposito S, Ganmaa D, Ginde AA, et al. Vitamin D supplementation to prevent acute respiratory tract infections: systematic review and meta-analysis of individual participant data. BMJ. 2017;i6583. doi:10.1136/bmj.i6583.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meltzer DO, Best TJ, Zhang H, Vokes T, Arora V, Solway J. Association of vitamin D deficiency and treatment with COVID-19 incidence. Infectious Diseases (except HIV/AIDS). 2020. doi:10.1101/2020.05.08.20095893.
   Google Scholar
• D’Avolio A, Avataneo V, Manca A, Cusato J, De Nicolò A, Lucchini R, Keller F, Cantù M. 25-Hydroxyvitamin D concentrations are lower in patients with positive PCR for SARS-CoV-2. Nutrients. 2020;12(5):1359. doi:10.3390/nu12051359.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ilie PC, Stefanescu S, Smith L. The role of vitamin D in the prevention of coronavirus disease 2019 infection and mortality. Aging Clin Exp Res. 2020. doi:10.1007/s40520-020-01570-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glicio EJ. Vitamin D level of mild and severe elderly cases of COVID-19: A preliminary report. SSRN; 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Alipio M. Vitamin D supplementation could possibly improve clinical outcomes of patients infected with coronavirus-2019 (COVID-2019). SSRN Electron J. 2020. doi:10.2139/ssrn.3571484.
   Google Scholar
• Raharusun P, Priambada S, Budiarti C, Agung E, Budi C. Patterns of COVID-19 mortality and vitamin D: an Indonesian study. SSRN Electron J. 2020; doi:10.2139/ssrn.3585561.
   Google Scholar
• Daneshkhah A, Agrawal V, Eshein A, Subramanian H, Roy HK, Backman V. The possible role of vitamin D in suppressing cytokine storm and associated mortality in COVID-19 patients. Infectious Diseases (except HIV/AIDS); 2020. doi:10.1101/2020.04.08.20058578.
   Google Scholar
• Ross AC, Institute of Medicine (U. S.), eds. Dietary reference intakes: calcium, vitamin D. Washington (DC): National Academies Press; 2011.
   Google Scholar
• Li YC. Vitamin D: roles in renal and cardiovascular protection. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens. 2012;21(1):72–9. doi:10.1097/MNH.0b013e32834de4ee.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li YC, Kong J, Wei M, Chen Z-F, Liu SQ, Cao L-P. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D(3) is a negative endocrine regulator of the renin-angiotensin system. J Clin Invest. 2002;110(2):229–38. doi:10.1172/JCI15219.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guyi W, Chenfang W, Quan Z, Fang W, Bo Y, Jianlei L, Yiming L, Tiao L, Siye Z, Chao W, Guobao W, Yanjun Z. C-reactive protein level may predict the risk of COVID-19 aggravation. Open  Forum Infect Dis. 2020;7(5). doi:10.1093/ofid/ofaa153.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zittermann A. Magnesium deficit? Overlooked cause of low vitamin D status? BMC Med. 2013;11:229. doi:10.1186/1741-7015-11-229.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reddy P, Edwards LR. Magnesium supplementation in vitamin D deficiency. Am J Ther. 2019;26(1):e124–32. doi:10.1097/MJT.0000000000000538.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodríguez-Ortiz ME, Canalejo A, Herencia C, Martínez-Moreno JM, Peralta-Ramírez A, Perez-Martinez P, Navarro-González JF, Rodríguez M, Peter M, Gundlach K, et al. Magnesium modulates parathyroid hormone secretion and upregulates parathyroid receptor expression at moderately low calcium concentration. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2014;29(2):282–9. doi:10.1093/ndt/gft400.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Risco F, Traba ML. Bone specific binding sites for 1,25(OH)2D3 in magnesium deficiency. J Physiol Biochem. 2004;60(3):199–203. doi:10.1007/bf03167029.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCoy H, Kenney MA. Interactions between magnesium and vitamin D: possible implications in the immune system. Magnes Res. 1996;9(3):185–203.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rude RK, Adams JS, Ryzen E, Endres DB, Niimi H, Horst RL, Haddad JG, Singer FR. Low serum concentrations of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D in human magnesium deficiency. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1985;61(5):933–40. doi:10.1210/jcem-61-5-933.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lemay J, Gascon-Barré M. Responsiveness of the intestinal 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 receptor to magnesium depletion in the rat. Endocrinology. 1992;130(5):2767–77. doi:10.1210/endo.130.5.1315257.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deng X, Song Y, Manson JE, Signorello LB, Zhang SM, Shrubsole MJ, Ness RM, Seidner DL, Dai Q. Magnesium, vitamin D status and mortality: results from US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2001 to 2006 and NHANES III. BMC Med. 2013;11:187. doi:10.1186/1741-7015-11-187.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uwitonze AM, Razzaque MS. Role of magnesium in vitamin D activation and function. J Am Osteopath Assoc. 2018;118(3):181–9. doi:10.7556/jaoa.2018.037.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tan CW, Ho LP, Kalimuddin S, et al. A cohort study to evaluate the effect of combination vitamin D, magnesium and vitamin B12 (DMB) on progression to severe outcome in older COVID-19 patients. Infectious Diseases (except HIV/AIDS); 2020. doi:10.1101/2020.06.01.20112334.
   Google Scholar