GENDER DIFFERENCES IN AGE OF ONSET FOR DELINQUENCY: RISK FACTORS AND CONSEQUENCES

REFERENCES

• Bartusch , D. J. , Lynam , D. R. , Moffitt , T. E. and Silva , P. A. 1997 . “Is Age Important? Testing a General Versus a Developmental Theory of Antisocial Behavior.” . Criminology , 35 : 13 – 48 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benson , M. L. 2002 . Crime and the Life Course: An Introduction. , Los Angeles , CA : Roxbury Publishing Company .
   Google Scholar
• Blumstein , A. , Cohen , J. , Roth , J. A. and Visher , C. A. 1986 . Criminal Careers and ‘Career Criminals.’ , WASHINGTON , D.C : National Academy Press .
   Google Scholar
• Brame , R. , Paternoster , R. , Mazerolle , P. and Piquero , A. 1998 . “Testing for the Equality of Maximum Likelihood Regression Coefficients between Two Independent Samples.” . Journal of Quantitative Criminology , 14 : 245 – 262 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Broidy , L. and Agnew , R. 1997 . “Gender and Crime: A General Strain Theory Perspective.” . Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency , 34 : 275 – 306 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Center for Disease Control. 2006 . Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance–United States, 2005. . Surveillance Summaries, MMWR , 55 : #SS-5
   Google Scholar
• Cerezo , M. A. and Frias , D. 1994 . “Emotional and Cognitive Adjustment in Abused Children.” . Child Abuse and Neglect , 18 : 923 – 932 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chesney-Lind , M and Okamoto , S. K. 2001 . “Gender Matters: Patterns in Girls’ Delinquency and Gender Responsive Programming.” . Journal of Forensic Psychology Practice , 1 : 1 – 28 .
   Google Scholar
• Clogg , C. , Petkova , E. and Haritou , A. 1995 . “Statistical Methods for Comparing Regression Coefficients between Models.” . American Journal of Sociology , 100 : 1261 – 1293 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cote , S. , Zoccolillo , M. , Tremblay , R. E. , Nagin , D. and Vitaro , F. 2001 . “Predicting Girls’ Conduct Disorder in Adolescence from Childhood Trajectories of Disruptive Behaviors.” . Journal of the American Academy of Child Adolescent Psychiatry , 40 : 678 – 684 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daigle , L. , Cullen , F. T. and Wright , J. P. 2007 . “Gender Differences in the Predictors of Juvenile Delinquency: Assessing the Generality-Specificity Debate.” . Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice , 5 : 254 – 286 .
   Google Scholar
• Farrington , D. P. 2003 . “Developmental and Life-course Criminology: Key Theoretical and Empirical Issues–The 2002 Sutherland Award Address.” . Criminology , 41 : 221 – 255 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farrington , D. P. and Hawkins , J. D. 1991 . “Predicting Participation, Early Onset, and Later Persistence in Officially Recorded Offending.” . Criminal Behavior and Mental Health , 1 : 1 – 33 .
   Google Scholar
• Farrington , D. P. , Loeber , R. and Van Kammen , W. B. 1990 . “Long-term Outcomes of Hyperactivity-Impulsivity-Attention Deficit and Conduct Problems in Childhood.” . In Straight and Devious Pathways from Childhood to Adulthood , Edited by: Robins , L. N. and Rutter , M. 62 – 81 . New York : Cambridge University Press. .
   Google Scholar
• Federal Bureau of Investigation. 2004 . Crime in the United States. 2004. , Washington , DC : Government Printing Office .
   Google Scholar
• Feiring , C. , Taska , L. and Lewis , M. 1998 . “The Role of Shame and Attributional Style in Children's and Adolescents’ Adaptation to Sexual Abuse.” . Child Maltreatment , 3 : 129 – 142 .
   Google Scholar
• Fergusson , D. M. and Horwood , L. J. 2002 . “Male and Female Offending Trajectories.” . Developmental and Psychopathology , 14 : 159 – 177 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fergusson , D. M. and Woodward , L. J. 2000 . “Educational, Psychosocial, and Sexual Outcomes in Girls with Conduct Problems in Early Adolescence.” . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry , 41 : 779 – 792 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gfoerer , J. C. , Wu , L. T. and Penne , M. A. 2002 . Initiation of Marijuana Use: Trends, Patterns, and Implications. , Rockville , MD : Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies .
   Google Scholar
• Gibson , C. L. , Piquero , A. R. and Tibbetts , S. G. 2001 . “The Contribution of Family Adversity and Verbal IQ to Criminal Behavior.” . International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology , 45 : 574 – 592 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giordano , P. C. , Cernkovich , S. A. and Pugh , M. D. 1986 . “Friendships and Delinquency.” . American Journal of Sociology , 91 : 1170 – 1202 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glueck , S. and Glueck , E. T. 1990 . Unraveling Juvenile Delinquency. , Cambridge , MA : Harvard University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Gottfredson , M. R. and Hirschi , T. 1990 . A General Theory of Crime. , Stanford : Stanford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Hardy , J. B. and Shapiro , S. 1999 . Pathways to Adulthood: A Three Generational Urban Study, 1960–1994: Baltimore, Maryland. , Ann Arbor , MI : Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research .
   Google Scholar
• Hanlon , T. E. , Bateman , R. W. , Simon , B. D. , O'Grady , K. E. and Carswell , S. B. 2004 . “Antecedents and Correlates of Deviant Activity in Urban Youth Manifesting Behavioral Problems.” . The Journal of Primary Prevention , 24 : 285 – 309 .
   Google Scholar
• Hawkins , J. D. , Smith , B. H. , Hill , K. G. , Kosterman , R. , Catalano , R. F. and Abbott , R. D. 2003 . “Understanding and Preventing Crime and Violence: Findings from the Seattle Social Development Project.” . In Taking Stock of Delinquency: An Overview of Findings From Contemporary Longitudinal Studies , Edited by: Thornberry , T. P. and Krohn , M. D. 255 – 312 . New York : Plenum. .
   Google Scholar
• Hipwell , A. E. , Loeber , R. , Stouthamer-Loeber , M. , Kennan , K. , White , H. R. and Kroneman , L. 2002 . “Characteristics of Girls with Early Onset Disruptive and Antisocial Behavior.” . Criminal Behavior and Mental Health , 12 : 99 – 118 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Holden , G. A. and Kapler , R. A. 1995 . “Deinstitutionalizing Status Offenders: A Record of Progress.” . Journal of the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention , 2 : 3 – 11 .
   Google Scholar
• Hoyt , S. and Scherer , D. G. 1998 . “Female Juvenile Delinquency: Misunderstood by the Juvenile Justice System, Neglected by Social Science.” . Law and Human Behavior , 22 : 81 – 107 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huizinga , D. , Weiher , A. W. , Espiritu , R. and Esbensen , F. 2003 . “Delinquency and Crime: Some Highlights from the Denver Youth Study.” . In Taking Stock of Delinquency: An Overview of Findings from Contemporary Longitudinal Studies , Edited by: Thornberry , T. P. and Krohn , M. D. 47 – 91 . New York : Kluwer/Penum. .
   Google Scholar
• Johnston , L. D. , O'Malley , P. M. , Bachman , J. G. and Schulenberg , J. E. 2007 . Monitoring the Future National Results on Adolescent drug use: Overview of Key findings , Bethesda , MD : National Institute on Drug Abuse .
   Google Scholar
• Junger Tas , J. and Marshall , H. I. 1999 . “The Self-report Methodology in Crime Research.” . In Crime and Justice: A Review of Research , Edited by: Tonry , M. 291 – 367 . Chicago , IL : University of Chicago Press. .
   Google Scholar
• Kosterman , R. , Hawkins , J. D. , Guo , J. , Catalano , R. F. and Abbott , R. D. 2000 . “The Dynamics of Alcohol and Marijuana Initiation: Patterns and Predictors of First Use in Adolescence.” . American Journal of Public Health , 90 : 360 – 366 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leadbetter , B. J. , Blatt , S. J. and Quinlan , D. M. 1995 . “Gender-linked Vulnerabilities to Depressive Symptoms, Stress, and Problems in Adolescence.” . Journal of Research on Adolescence , 5 : 1 – 29 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lessem , J. M. , Hopfer , C. J. , Haberstick , B. C. , Timberlake , D. , Ehringer , M. A. Smolen , A. 2006 . “Relationship between Adolescent Marijuana Use and Young Adult Illicit Drug Use.” . Behavior Genetics , 36 : 498 – 506 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leve , L. D. and Chamberlain , P. 2004 . “Female Juvenile Offenders: Defining an Early-onset Pathway for Delinquency.” . Journal of Child and Family Studies , l3 : 439 – 452 .
   Google Scholar
• Loeber , R. and Farrington , D. P. 1999 . Serious and Violent Juvenile Offenders: Risk Factors and Successful Interventions. , Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Loeber , R. and Farrington , D. P. 2000 . “Young Children Who Commit Crime: Epidemiology, Developmental Origins, Risk Factors, Early Interventions, and Policy Implications.” . Development and Psychopathology , 12 : 737 – 762 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loeber , R. , Farrington , D. P. , Stouthamer-Loeber , M. , Moffitt , T. E. and Caspi , A. 1998 . “The Development of Male Offending: Key Findings from the First Decade of the Pittsburgh Youth Study.” . Studies on Crime and Crime Prevention , 7 : 141 – 171 .
   Google Scholar
• Loeber , R. , Farrington , D. P. , Stouthamer-Loeber , M. , Lahey , B. B. , Keenan , K. and White , H. R. 2002 . “Editorial Introduction, Three Longitudinal Studies of Children's Development in Pittsburgh: The Developmental Trends Study, the Pittsburgh Youth Study, and the Pittsburgh Girls Study.” . Criminal Behavior and Mental Health , 12 : 1 – 23 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Loeber , R. , Farrington , D. P. , Stouthamer-Loeber , M. , Moffitt , T. E. , Caspi , A. White , H. R. 2003 . “The Development of Male Offending: Key Findings from Fourteen Years of the Pittsburgh Youth Study.” . In Taking Stock of Delinquency: An Overview of Findings from Contemporary Longitudinal Studies , Edited by: Thornberry , T. P. and Krohn , M. D. 93 – 136 . New York : Kluwer/Plenum. .
   Google Scholar
• Loeber , R. and LeBlanc , M. 1990 . “Toward a Developmental Criminology.” . In Crime and Justice: An Annual Review of Research , Edited by: Tonry , M. and Morris , N. 375 – 473 . Chicago , IL : University of Chicago Press. .
   Google Scholar
• Long , J. and Freese , S. 2003 . Regression Models for Categorical Dependent Variables using STATA. , College Station , TX : STATA Press .
   Google Scholar
• Mallicoat , S. L. 2007 . “Gendered Justice: Attributional Differences between Males and Females in the Juvenile Courts.” . Feminist Criminology , 2 ( 1 ) : 4 – 30 .
   Google Scholar
• Mazerolle , P. , Brame , R. , Paternoster , R. , Piquero , A. and Dean , C. 2000 . “Onset age, Persistence, and Offending Versatility: Comparisons Across Gender.” . Criminology , 38 : 1143 – 1172 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCabe , K. M. , Lansing , A. E. , Garland , A and Hough , R. 2002 . “Gender Differences in Psychopathology, Functional Impairment, and Familial Risk Factors among Adjudicated Delinquents.” . Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry , 41 : 860 – 867 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Menard , S. , Mihalic , S. and Huizinga , D. 2001 . “Drugs and Crime Revisited.” . Justice Quarterly , 18 : 269 – 299 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moffitt , T. E. 1993 . “Adolescent-limited and Life-course Persistent Antisocial Behavior: A Developmental Taxonomy.” . Psychological Review , 100 : 674 – 701 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moffitt , T. E. 2001 . “Adolescent-limited and Life-course Persistent Antisocial Behavior.” . In Life-course Criminology: Contemporary and Classic Readings. , Edited by: Piquero , A. and Mazerolle , P. Samford , CT : Wadsworth/Thomson Learning .
   Google Scholar
• Moffitt , T. E. , Caspi , A. , Harrington , H. and Milne , B. J. 2002 . “Males on the Life-course Persistent and Adolescence-limited Antisocial Pathways: Follow up at Age 26.” . Developmental Psychopathology , 14 : 179 – 207 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moffitt , T. E. , Caspi , A. , Rutter , M. and Silva , P. A. 2001 . Sex Differences in Antisocial Behavior. , United Kingdom : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Nagin , D. S. and Farrington , D. P. 1992 . “The Onset and Persistence of Offending.” . Criminology , 30 : 111 – 140 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Office of Applied Studies. 2004 . Results from the 2003 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: National findings. , Rockville , MD : Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration .
   Google Scholar
• Office of Juvenile Justice Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP). 2000 . Juvenile Justice Bulletin , 2000
   Google Scholar
• Office of National Drug Control Policy . 2004 . Predicting Heavy Drug Use. , Washington , DC : Executive Office of the President . (Publication No. NCJ 208382)
   Google Scholar
• Pajer , K. A. 1998 . “What Happens to “Bad” Girls? A Review of the Adult Outcomes of Antisocial Adolescent Girls.” . American Journal of Psychiatry , 155 : 862 – 870 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piquero , A. R. 2000 . “Assessing the Relationships between Gender, Chronicity, Seriousness, and Offense Skewness in Criminal Offending.” . Journal of Criminal Justice , 28 : 103 – 115 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piquero , A. R. 2001 . “Testing Moffitt's Neuropsychological Variation Hypothesis for the Prediction of Life-course Persistent Offending.” . Psychology, Crime, and Law , 7 : 193 – 215 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piquero , A. R. and Chung , H. L. 2001 . “On the Relationships between Gender, Early Onset, and the Seriousness of Offending.” . Journal of Criminal Justice , 29 : 189 – 206 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piquero , A. R. , Daigle , L. E. , Gibson , C. , Piquero , N. P. and Tibbetts , S. G. 2007 . “Research Note: Are Life-course Persistent Offenders at Risk for Adverse Health Outcomes?” . Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency , 44 : 185 – 207 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piquero , N. L. and Sealock , M. D. 2004 . “Gender and General Strain Theory: A Preliminary Test of Broidy and Agnew's Gender/GST Hypotheses.” . Justice Quarterly , 21 : 125 – 158 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Preski , S. and Shelton , D. 2001 . “The Role of Contextual, Child, and Parent Factors in Predicting Criminal Outcomes in Adolescence.” . Issue in Mental Health Nursing , 22 : 197 – 205 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Raine , A. , Brennan , P. and Mednick , S. A. 1997 . “Interaction between Birth Complications and Early Maternal Rejection in Predisposing Individuals to Adult Violence: Specificity to Serious, Early-onset Violence.” . American Journal of Psychiatry , 154 : 1265 – 1271 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robins , L. N. 1978 . “Sturdy Childhood Predictors of Adult Antisocial Behavior: Replications Form Longitudinal Studies.” . Psychological Medicine , 8 : 611 – 622 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosay , A. B. , Najaka , S. S. and Herz , D. C. 2007 . “Differences in the Validity of Self-reported Drug Use across Five Factors: Gender, Race, Age, Type of Drug, and Offense seriousness.” . Journal of Quantitative Criminology , 23 : 41 – 58 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sampson , R. J. and Laub , J. H. 1992 . “Crime and Deviance in the Life Course.” . Annual Review of Sociology , 18 : 63 – 84 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sampson , R. J. and Laub , J. H. 1993 . Crime in the Making: Pathways and Turning Points through Life. , Cambridge , MA : Harvard University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Sampson , R. J. and Laub , J. H. 2003 . Shared Beginnings, Divergent Lives: Delinquent Boys to age 70. , Cambridge , MA : Harvard University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Sealock , M. D. and Simpson , S. S. 1998 . “Unraveling Bias in Arrest Decisions: The Role of Juvenile Offender Type-scripts.” . Justice Quarterly , 15 : 427 – 257 .
   Google Scholar
• Simpson , S. S. , Yahner , J. L. and Dugan , L. 2008 . “Understanding Women's Pathways to Jail: Analyzing the Lives of Incarcerated Women.” . The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology , 41 : 84 – 108 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stattin , H. and Magnusson , D. 1995 . “Onset of Official Delinquency: Its Co-occurrence in Time with Educational, Behavioral, and Interpersonal Problems.” . British Journal of Criminology , 35 : 417 – 449 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Storvoll , E. E. and Wichstrom , L. 2002 . “Do the Risk Factors Associated with Conduct Problems in Adolescents Vary According to Gender?” . Journal of Adolescence , 25 : 183 – 202 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Straus , M. A. 1979 . “Measuring Intrafamily Conflict and Violence: The Conflict Tactics (CT) Scales.” . Journal of Marriage and Family , 41 : 75 – 88 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Straus , M. A. 1990 . “The Conflict Tactics Scales and its Critics: An Evaluation and New Data on Validity and Reliability.” . In Physical Violence in American Families: Risk Factors and Adaptations to Violence in 8,145 Families , Edited by: Straus , M. A. and Gelles , R. J. 49 – 73 . New Brunswick , NJ : Transaction Publishers. .
   Google Scholar
• Thornberry , T. P. 1997 . “Introduction: Some Advantages of Developmental and Life-course Perspectives for the Study of Crime and Delinquency.” . In Developmental Theories of Crime and Delinquency , Edited by: Thornberry , T. P. 1 – 10 . New Brunswick , NJ : Transaction Publishers. .
   Google Scholar
• Thornberry , T. P. , Lizotte , A. J. , Krohn , M. D. , Smith , D. A. and Porter , P. K. 2003 . “Causes and Consequences of Delinquency: Findings from the Rochester Youth Development Study.” . In Taking Stock in Delinquency: An Overview of Findings from Contemporary Longitudinal Studies , Edited by: Thornberry , T. P. and Krohn , M. D. 11 – 46 . New York : Kluwer/Plunem. .
   Google Scholar
• Tibbetts , S. G. and Piquero , A. R. 1999 . “The Influence of Gender, Low Birth Weight, and Disadvantaged Environment in Predicting Early Onset of Offending: A Test of Moffitt's Interactional Hypothesis.” . Criminology , 37 : 843 – 877 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tremblay , R. E. , Masse , L. C. , Vitaro , F. and Dobkin , P. L. 1995 . “The Impact of Friends’ Deviant Behavior on Early Onset of Delinquency: Longitudinal Data from 6 to 13 Years of Age.” . Development and Psychopathology , 7 : 649 – 667 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Werner , N. E. and Silbereisen , R. K. 2003 . “Family Relationship Quality and Contact with Deviant Peers as Predictors of Adolescent Problem Behaviors: The Moderating Role of Gender.” . Journal of Adolescent Research , 18 : 454 – 480 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Widom , C. S. 1989 . “The Cycle of Violence.” . Science , 244 : 160 – 166 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolfe , V. V. , Gentile , L. and Wolfe , D. A. 1989 . “The Impact of Sexual Abuse on Children: A PTSD Formulation.” . Behavior Therapy , 20 : 215 – 228 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolfgang , M. E. , Figlio , R. M. and Sellin , T. 1972 . Delinquency in a Birth Cohort. , Chicago : University of Chicago Press .
   Google Scholar