An examination of the direct and interactive effects of race/ethnicity and gender on charge reduction

References

• Albonetti, C. A. 1986. “Criminality, Prosecutorial Screening, and Uncertainty: Toward a Theory of Discretionary Decision Making in Felony Case Processings.” Criminology 24 (4): 623–644. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.1986.tb01505.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Albonetti, C. A. 1987. “Prosecutorial Discretion: The Effects of Uncertainty.” Law & Society Review 21 (2): 291–313. doi:10.2307/3053523.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Albonetti, C. A. 1991. “An Integration of Theories to Explain Judicial Discretion.” Social Problems 38 (2): 247–266. doi:10.2307/800532.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Albonetti, C. A. 1992. “Charge Reduction: An Analysis of Prosecutorial Discretion in Burglary and Robbery Cases.” Journal of Quantitative Criminology 8 (3): 317–333. doi:10.1007/BF01064551.
   Google Scholar
• Ball, J. D. 2006. “Is It a Prosecutor’s World? Determinants of Count Bargaining Decisions.” Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 22 (3): 241–260. doi:10.1177/1043986206292369.
   Google Scholar
• Baumer, E. P. 2013. “Reassessing and Redirecting Research on Race and Sentencing.” Justice Quarterly 30 (2): 231–261. doi:10.1080/07418825.2012.682602.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beichner, D., and C. Spohn. 2005. “Prosecutorial Charging Decisions in Sexual Assault Cases: Examining the Impact of a Specialized Prosecution Unit.” Criminal Justice Policy Review 16 (4): 461–498. doi:10.1177/0887403405277195.
   Google Scholar
• Bernstein, I. N., J. Edward Kick, T. Leung, and B. Schulz. 1977. “Charge Reduction: An Intermediary Stage in the Process of Labelling Criminal Defendants.” Social Forces 56 (2): 362–384. doi:10.1093/sf/56.2.362.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bibas, S. 2004. “Plea Bargaining outside the Shadow of Trial.” Harvard Law Review 117 (8): 2463–2547. doi:10.2139/ssrn.464880.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bishop, D. M., and C. E. Frazier. 1984. “The Effects of Gender on Charge Reduction.” The Sociological Quarterly 25 (3): 385–396. doi:10.1111/j.1533-8525.1984.tb00198.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bloch, K. R., R. L. Engen, and K. L. Parrotta. 2014. “The Intersection of Race and Gender: An Examination of Sentencing Outcomes in North Carolina.” Criminal Justice Studies 27 (4): 419–438. doi:10.1080/1478601X.2014.932787.
   Google Scholar
• Brennan, P. K. 2006. “Sentencing Female Misdemeanants: An Examination of the Direct and Indirect Effects of Race/Ethnicity.” Justice Quarterly 23 (1): 60–95. doi:10.1080/07418820600552477.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cano, M. V., and C. Spohn. 2012. “Circumventing the Penalty for Offenders Facing Mandatory Minimums: Revisiting the Dynamics of “Sympathetic” and “Salvageable” Offenders.” Criminal Justice and Behavior 39 (3): 308–332. doi:10.1177/0093854811431419.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caravelis, C., T. Chiricos, and W. Bales. 2013. “Race, Ethnicity, Threat, and the Designation of Career Offenders.” Justice Quarterly 30 (5): 869–894. doi:10.1080/07418825.2011.635597.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Decker, S. H., N. Ortiz, C. Spohn, and E. Hedberg. 2015. “Criminal Stigma, Race, and Ethnicity: The Consequences of Imprisonment for Employment.” Journal of Criminal Justice 43 (2): 108–121. doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2015.02.002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dixon, J. 1995. “The Organizational Context of Criminal Sentencing.” American Journal of Sociology 100 (5): 1157–1198. doi:10.1086/230635.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farnworth, M., H. C. Raymond, and J. Teske. 1995. “Gender Differences in Felony Court Processing: Three Hypotheses of Disparity.” Women & Criminal Justice 6 (2): 23–44. doi:10.1300/J012v06n02_02.
   Google Scholar
• Feeley, M. M. 1979. The Process Is the Punishment: Handling Cases in a Lower Criminal Court. New York: Russel Sage Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Feld, B. C. 1999. Bad Kids: Race and the Transformation of the Juvenile Court. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Fellner, J. 2014. “An Offer You Can’t Refuse: How U.S. Federal Prosecutors Force Drug Defendants to Plead Guilty.” Federal Sentencing Report 26 (4): 276–281. doi:10.1525/fsr.2014.26.4.276.
   Google Scholar
• Freiburger, T. L. 2010. “The Effects of Gender, Family Status, and Race on Sentencing Decisions.” Behavioral Sciences & the Law 28 (3): 378–395. doi:10.1002/bsl.901.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freiburger, T. L., and C. M. Hilinski. 2013. “An Examination of the Interactions of Race and Gender on Sentencing Decisions Using a Trichotomous Dependent Variable.” Crime and Delinquency 59 (1): 59–86. doi:10.1177/0011128708330178.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frohmann, L. 1997. “Convictability and Discordant Locales: Reproducing Race, Class, and Gender Ideologies in Prosecutorial Decisionmaking.” Law & Society Review 31 (3): 531–556. doi:10.2307/3054045.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geller, A., and M. A. Curtis. 2011. “A Sort of Homecoming: Incarceration and the Housing Security of Urban Men.” Social Science Research 40 (4): 1196–1213. doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2011.03.008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hartley, R. D., and R. Tillyer. 2018. “Examining Prosecutorial Discretion in Federal Criminal Cases: Legal and Extra-legal Determinants of Declination and Charge Change Decisions.” Justice Quarterly 35 (7): 1195–1225. doi:10.1080/07418825.2018.1530367.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hawkins, D. F. 1981. “Causal Attribution and Punishment for Crime.” Deviant Behavior 2 (3): 207–230. doi:10.1080/01639625.1981.9967554.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holleran, D., and C. Spohn. 2004. “On the Use of the Total Incarceration Variable in Sentencing Research.” Criminology 42 (1): 211–240. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2004.tb00518.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holmes, M. D., H. C. Dauditsel, and R. A. Farrell. 1987. “Determinants of Charge Reductions and Final Dispositions in Cases of Burglary and Robbery.” Journal of Research in Crime & Delinquency 24 (3): 233–254. doi:10.1177/0022427887024003004.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacoby, J. E. 1980. “The American Prosecutor: A Search for Identity.” Michigan Law Review 79 (4): 919–920. doi:10.2307/1288321
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, B. D. 2018. “In Search of the Missing Link: Examining Contextual Variation in Federal Charge Bargains across U.S. District Courts.” Justice Quarterly 35 (7): 1133–1165. doi:10.1080/07418825.2018.1523447.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, B. D., J. T. Ulmer, and J. H. Kramer. 2008. “The Social Context of Guidelines Circumvention: The Case of Federal District Courts.” Criminology 46 (3): 737–783. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2008.00125.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, B. D., and L. Pilar. 2019. “The ‘Distance Traveled’: Investigating the Downstream Consequences of Charge Reductions for Disparities in Incarceration.” Justice Quarterly 36 (7): 1229–1257. doi:10.1080/07418825.2018.1529250.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, B. D., and M. C. Kurlychek. 2012. “Transferred Juveniles in the Era of Sentencing Guidelines: Examining Judicial Departures for Juvenile Offenders in Adult Criminal Court.” Criminology 50 (2): 525–564. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2011.00270.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, C. S., and M. F. Kaplan. 2003. “The Effects of Racially Stereotypical Crimes on Juror Decision-making and Information-processing Strategies.” Basic and Applied Social Psychology 25 (1): 1–13. 10.1207/S15324834BASP2501_1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, B., M. V. Cano, K. Kim, and C. Spohn. 2015. “The Impact of United States V. Booker and Gall/Kimbrough V. United States on Sentence Severity: Assessing Social Context and Judicial Discretion.” Crime and Delinquency 62 (8): 1072–1094. 10.1177/0011128714551783
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knox, D., and J. Mummolo. 2020. “Making Inferences about Racial Disparities in Police Violence.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117 (3): 1261–1262. doi:10.1073/pnas.1919418117.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kutateladze, B. L., N. R. Andiloro, and B. D. Johnson. 2016. “Opening Pandora’s Box: How Does Defendant Race Influence Plea Bargaining?” Justice Quarterly 33 (3): 398–426. doi:10.1080/07418825.2014.915340.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kutateladze, B. L., N. R. Andiloro, B. D. Johnson, and C. C. Spohn. 2014. “Cumulative Disadvantage: Examining Racial and Ethnic Disparity in Prosecution and Sentencing.” Criminology 52 (3): 514–551. doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12047.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LaFave, W. R. 1970. “The Prosecutor’s Discretion in the United States.” American Journal of Comparative Law 18 (3): 532–548. doi:10.2307/839344.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Logue, M. A. 2011. “Downward Departures in US Federal Courts: Do Family Ties, Sex, and Race/Ethnicity Matter?” Ethnic and Racial Studies 34 (4): 683–706. doi:10.1080/01419870.2010.487568.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lynch, M. 2019. “Focally Concerned about Focal Concerns: E Conceptual and Methodological Critique of Sentence Disparities Research.” Justice Quarterly 36 (7): 1148–1175. doi:10.1080/07418825.2019.1686163.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCall, L. 2005. “The Complexity of Intersectionality.” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 30 (3): 1771–1800. doi:10.1086/426800.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLeod, M. 1983. “Victim Noncooperation in the Prosecution of Domestic Assault.” Criminology 21 (3): 395–416. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.1983.tb00268.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Metcalfe, C., and T. Chiricos. 2018. “Race, Plea, and Charge Reduction: An Assessment of Racial Disparities in the Plea Process.” Justice Quarterly JQ 35 (2): 223–253. doi:10.1080/07418825.2017.1304564.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer, J. A., and T. Gray. 1997. “Drunk Drivers in the Courts: Legal and Extra-Legal Factors Affecting Pleas and Sentences.” Journal of Criminal Justice 25 (2): 155–163. doi:10.1016/S0047-2352(96)00058-X.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miethe, T. D. 1987. “Charging and Plea Bargaining Practices under Determinant Sentencing: An Investigation of the Hydraulic Displacement of Discretion.” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 78 (1): 155–176. doi:10.2307/1143578.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miethe, T. D., and C. A. Moore. 1986. “Racial Differences in Criminal Processing: The Consequences of Model Selection on Conclusions about Differential Treatment.” The Sociological Quarterly 27 (2): 217–237. doi:10.1111/j.1533-8525.1986.tb00258.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nardulli, P. F., J. Eisenstein, and R. B. Flemming. 1988. The Tenor of Justice: Criminal Courts and the Guilty Plea Process. Chicago: University of Illinois Press.
   Google Scholar
• Piehl, A. M., and S. D. Bushway. 2007. “Measuring and Explaining Charge Bargaining.” Journal of Quantitative Criminology 23 (2): 105–125. doi:10.1007/s10940-006-9023-x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Romain, D. M., and T. L. Freiburger. 2016. “Chivalry Revisited: Gender, Race/ Ethnicity,and Offense Type on Domestic Violence Charge Reduction.” Feminist Criminology 11 (2): 191–222. doi:10.1177/1557085115580389.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell-Brown, K. 1998. The Color of Crime. New York: New York University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Shermer, B. D. Johnson, L. O’Neill, and B. D. Johnson. 2010. “Criminal Prosecutions: Examining Prosecutorial Discretion and Charge Reductions in US Federal District Courts.” Justice Quarterly 27 (3): 394–430. doi:10.1080/07418820902856972.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spohn, C., and D. Beichner. 2000. “Is Preferential Treatment of Felony Offenders A Thing of the Past? A Multisite Study of Gender, Race, and Imprisonment.” Criminal Justice Policy Review 11 (2): 149–184. doi:10.1177/0887403400011002004.
   Google Scholar
• Spohn, C., D. Beichner, and E. Davis-Frenzel. 2001. “Prosecutorial Justifications for Sexual Assault Case Rejection: Guarding the ‘Gateway to Justice’.” Social Problems 48 (2): 206–235. doi:10.1525/sp.2001.48.2.206.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spohn, C., and D. Holleran. 2001. “Prosecuting Sexual Assault: A Comparison of Charging Decisions in Sexual Assault Cases Involving Strangers, Acquaintances, and Intimate Partners.” Justice Quarterly 18 (3): 651–688. doi:10.1080/07418820100095051.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steffensmeier, D., J. Kramer, and C. Streifel. 1993. “Gender and Imprisonment Decisions.” Criminology 31 (3): 411–446. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.1993.tb01136.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steffensmeier, D., J. Ulmer, and J. Kramer. 1998. “The Interaction of Race, Gender, and Age in Criminal Sentencing: The Punishment Cost of Being Young, Black, and Male.” Criminology 36 (4): 763–798. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.1998.tb01265.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steffensmeier, D., and S. Demuth. 2001. “Ethnicity and Judges’ Sentencing Decisions: Hispanic-Black-White Comparisons.” Criminology 39 (1): 145–178. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2001.tb00919.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steffensmeier, D., and S. Demuth. 2006. “Does Gender Modify the Effects of Race-Ethnicity on Criminal Sanctions? Sentences for Male and Female, White, Black, and Hispanic Defendants.” Journal of Quantitative Criminology 22 (3): 241–261. doi:10.1007/s10940-006-9010-2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stemen, D., and G. Escobar. 2018. “Whither the Prosecutor? Prosecutor and County Effects on Guilty Plea Outcomes in Wisconsin.” Justice Quarterly 35 (7): 1166–1194. doi:10.1080/07418825.2018.1548637.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sudnow, D. 1965. “Normal Crimes: Sociological Features of the Penal Code in a Public Defender Office.” Social Problems 12 (3): 255–276. doi:10.2307/798932.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Testa, A., and B. D. Johnson. 2020. “Paying the Trial Tax: Race, Guilty Pleas, and Disparity in Prosecution.” Criminal Justice Policy Review 31 (4): 500–531. doi:10.1177/0887403419838025.
   Google Scholar
• Tor, A., O. Gazal‐Ayal, and S. M. Garcia. 2010. “Fairness and the Willingness to Accept Plea Bargain Offers.” Journal of Empirical Legal Studies 7 (1): 97–116. doi:10.1111/j.1740-1461.2009.01171.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• U.S. Census Bureau. 2019. “QuickFacts.” Retrieved from: https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/
   Google Scholar
• Ulmer, J. T. 1997. Social Worlds of Sentencing: Court Communities under Sentencing Guidelines. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ulmer, J. T. 2012. “Recent Developments and New Directions in Sentencing Research.” Justice Quarterly 29 (1): 1–40. doi:10.1080/07418825.2011.624115.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ulmer, J. T., J. Eisenstein, and B. D. Johnson. 2010. “Trial Penalties in Federal Sentencing: Extra‐Guidelines Factors and District Variation.” Justice Quarterly 27 (4): 560–592. doi:10.1080/07418820902998063.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ulmer, J. T., M. C. Kurlychek, and J. H. Kramer. 2007. “Prosecutorial Discretion and the Imposition of Mandatory Minimum Sentences.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 44 (4): 427–458. doi:10.1177/0022427807305853.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vance, S. E., and J. C. Oleson. 2014. “Displaced Discretion: The Effects of Sentencing Guidelines on Prosecutors’ Charge Bargaining in the District of Columbia Superior Court.” Criminal Justice Policy Review 25 (3): 347–377. doi:10.1177/0887403412469812.
   Google Scholar
• Wacquant, L. 2010. “Class, Race & Hyperincarceration in Revanchist America.” Daedalus 139 (3): 74–90. doi:10.1162/DAED_a_00024.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker, S. 2011. Sense and Nonsense about Crime, Drugs, and Communities: A Policy Guide. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning.
   Google Scholar
• Welch, K. 2007. “Black Criminal Stereotypes and Racial Profiling.” Journal of Contemporary Justice 23 (3): 276–288. doi:10.1177/1043986207306870.
   Google Scholar
• Yan,Shi. 2019. “What exactly is the bargain? The sensitivity of plea discount estimates.”.Justice Quarterly forthcoming: 1–22. doi:10.1080/07418825.2019.1707856.
   Google Scholar
• Yan,Shi. 2018. “Plea discounts or trial penalties? Making sense of the trial-plea sentence disparities”. Plea discounts or trial penalties? Making sense of the trial-plea sentence disparities no. 7: 1226–1249.
   Google Scholar
• Zatz, M. S. 2000. “The Convergence of Race, Ethnicity, Gender, and Class on Court Decision Making: Looking toward the 21st Century.” Criminal Justice 3 (1): 503–552.
   Google Scholar