222
Views
3
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Articles

Phytochemical constituents of Inula britannica as potential inhibitors of dihydrofolate reductase: A strategic approach against shigellosis

, , &
Pages 11932-11947 | Received 14 Jan 2021, Accepted 05 Aug 2021, Published online: 23 Aug 2021

References

  • Abraham, M. J., Murtola, T., Schulz, R., Pall, S., Smith, J. C., Hess, B., & Lindahl, E. (2015). GROMACS: High performance molecular simulations through multi-level parallelism from laptops to supercomputers. SoftwareX, 1-2, 19–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.softx.2015.06.001
  • Agtini, M. D., Soeharno, R., Lesmana, M., Punjabi, N. H., Simanjuntak, C., Wangsasaputra, F., … Santoso, H. (2005). The burden of diarrhoea, shigellosis, and cholera in North Jakarta, Indonesia: Findings from 24 months surveillance. BMC Infectious Diseases, 5(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2334-5-89
  • Al-Khafaji, K., & Taskin Tok, T. (2020). Molecular dynamics simulation, free energy landscape and binding free energy computations in exploration the anti-invasive activity of amygdalin against metastasis. Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine, 195, 105660. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmpb.2020.105660
  • Al-Khafaji, K., & Taskin Tok, T. (2021a). Amygdalin as multi-target anticancer drug against targets of cell division cycle: Double docking and molecular dynamics simulation. Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, 39(6), 1965–1974. https://doi.org/10.1080/07391102.2020.1742792
  • Al-Khafaji, K., & Taskin Tok, T. (2021b). Understanding the mechanism of amygdalin's multifunctional anti-cancer action using computational approach . Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, 39(5), 1600–1610. https://doi.org/10.1080/07391102.2020.1736159
  • Aldahham, B. J. M., Al-Khafaji, K., Saleh, M. Y., Abdelhakem, A. M., Alanazi, A. M., & Islam, M. A. (2020). Identification of naphthyridine and quinoline derivatives as potential Nsp16-Nsp10 inhibitors: a pharmacoinformatics study. Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/07391102.2020.1851305 33252031
  • Baell, J. B., & Holloway, G. A. (2010). New substructure filters for removal of pan assay interference compounds (PAINS) from screening libraries and for their exclusion in bioassays. Journal of Medicinal Chemistry, 53(7), 2719–2740. https://doi.org/10.1021/jm901137j
  • Bai, N., Lai, C.-S., He, K., Zhou, Z., Zhang, L., Quan, Z., Zhu, N., Zheng, Q. Y., Pan, M.-H., & Ho, C.-T. (2006). Sesquiterpene lactones from Inula britannica and their cytotoxic and apoptotic effects on human cancer cell lines. Journal of Natural Products, 69(4), 531–535. https://doi.org/10.1021/np050437q
  • Baveja, U. K. (2014). Shigellosis: An emerging water-related public health problem water and health (pp. 107–117). Springer.
  • Bennish, M. L., Harris, J. R., Wojtyniak, B. J., & Struelens, M. (1990). Death in shigellosis: Incidence and risk factors in hospitalized patients. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 161(3), 500–506. https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/161.3.500
  • Bhattacharya, D., Bhattacharya, H., Thamizhmani, R., Sayi, D. S., Reesu, R., Anwesh, M., Kartick, C., Bharadwaj, A. P., Singhania, M., Sugunan, A. P., & Roy, S. (2014). Shigellosis in Bay of Bengal Islands, India: Clinical and seasonal patterns, surveillance of antibiotic susceptibility patterns, and molecular characterization of multidrug-resistant Shigella strains isolated during a 6-year period from 2006 to 2011. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases: Official Publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology, 33(2), 157–170. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10096-013-1937-2
  • Bhattacharya, S. K., & Sur, D. (2003). An evaluation of current shigellosis treatment. Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy, 4(8), 1315–1320. https://doi.org/10.1517/14656566.4.8.1315
  • Biovia, D. S. (2013). Discovery studio (Version 2013). Dassault Systèmes.
  • Blair, J. M. A., Webber, M. A., Baylay, A. J., Ogbolu, D. O., & Piddock, L. J. V. (2015). Molecular mechanisms of antibiotic resistance. Nature Reviews. Microbiology, 13(1), 42–51. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro3380
  • Brooks, B. R., Bruccoleri, R. E., Olafson, B. D., States, D. J., Swaminathan, S., & Karplus, M. (1983). CHARMM: A program for macromolecular energy, minimization, and dynamics calculations. Journal of Computational Chemistry, 4(2), 187–217. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcc.540040211
  • Brown, G. M. (1971). The biosynthesis of pteridines. Advances in Enzymology and Related Areas of Molecular Biology, 35, 35–77. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470122808.ch2
  • Chanarin, I., Deacon, R., Lumb, M., & Perry, J. (1992). Cobalamin and folate: Recent developments. Journal of Clinical Pathology, 45(4), 277–283. https://doi.org/10.1136/jcp.45.4.277
  • Chen, Y.-Q., Kraut, J., Blakley, R. L., & Callender, R. (1994). Determination by Raman spectroscopy of the pKa of N5 of dihydrofolate bound to dihydrofolate reductase: Mechanistic implications. Biochemistry, 33(23), 7021–7026. https://doi.org/10.1021/bi00189a001
  • Choi, D.-Y., Lee, J. Y., Kim, M.-R., Woo, E.-R., Kim, Y. G., & Kang, K. W. (2005). Chrysoeriol potently inhibits the induction of nitric oxide synthase by blocking AP-1 activation. Journal of Biomedical Science, 12(6), 949–959. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11373-005-9028-8
  • Chougouo, R. D. K., Nguekeu, Y. M. M., Dzoyem, J. P., Awouafack, M. D., Kouamouo, J., Tane, P., McGaw, L. J., & Eloff, J. N. (2016). Anti-inflammatory and acetylcholinesterase activity of extract, fractions and five compounds isolated from the leaves and twigs of Artemisia annua growing in Cameroon. SpringerPlus, 5(1), 1525. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40064-016-3199-9
  • Das, A., Shakya, A., Ghosh, S. K., Singh, U. P., & Bhat, H. R. (2020). A review of phytochemical and pharmacological studies of Inula species. Current Bioactive Compounds, 16(5), 557–567. https://doi.org/10.2174/1573407215666190207093538
  • Desta, M. (2010). Prevalence of Salmonella and Shigella among food handlers in catering establishments in Hawassa University., Citeseer.
  • Egan, W. J., Merz, K. M., & Baldwin, J. J. (2000). Prediction of drug absorption using multivariate statistics. Journal of Medicinal Chemistry, 43(21), 3867–3877. https://doi.org/10.1021/jm000292e
  • Essmann, U., Perera, L., Berkowitz, M., Darden, T., Lee, H., & Pedersen, L. (1995). A smooth particle mesh Ewald method. Journal of Chemical Physics, 103(19), 8577–8593. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.470117
  • Faruque, S. M., Chowdhury, N., Khan, R., Hasan, M. R., Nahar, J., Islam, M. J., Yamasaki, S., Ghosh, A. N., Nair, G. B., & Sack, D. A. (2003). Shigella dysenteriae type 1-specific bacteriophage from environmental waters in Bangladesh. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 69(12), 7028–7031. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.69.12.7028-7031.2003
  • Fernández, L., & Hancock, R. E. W. (2013). Adaptive and mutational resistance: Role of porins and efflux pumps in drug resistance. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 26(1), 163–163. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00094-12
  • Fischedick, J. T., Pesic, M., Podolski-Renic, A., Bankovic, J., de Vos, R. C. H., Perić, M., Todorović, S., & Tanic, N. (2013). Cytotoxic activity of sesquiterpene lactones from Inula britannica on human cancer cell lines. Phytochemistry Letters, 6(2), 246–252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phytol.2013.02.006
  • Garnier, J., Gibrat, J.-F., & Robson, B. (1996). GOR method for predicting protein secondary structure from amino acid sequence. Methods in Enzymology, 266, 540–553.
  • Ghose, A. K., Viswanadhan, V. N., & Wendoloski, J. J. (1999). A knowledge-based approach in designing combinatorial or medicinal chemistry libraries for drug discovery. 1. A qualitative and quantitative characterization of known drug databases. Journal of Combinatorial Chemistry, 1(1), 55–68. https://doi.org/10.1021/cc9800071
  • Girma, G. (2015). A review on Shigella dysenteriae and Salmonella typhi: Implications for food handlers. Food Science and Quality Management, 39, 55–66.
  • Hale, T. L., & Keusch, G. T. (1996). Shigella. In Medical microbiology (4th ed.). Galveston, TX: University of Texas Medical Branch.
  • Hawser, S., Lociuro, S., & Islam, K. (2006). Dihydrofolate reductase inhibitors as antibacterial agents. Biochemical Pharmacology, 71(7), 941–948. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcp.2005.10.052
  • Heikkilä, E., Siitonen, A., Jahkola, M., Fling, M., Sundström, L., & Huovinen, P. (1990). Increase of trimethoprim resistance among Shigella species, 1975-1988: analysis of resistance mechanisms. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 161(6), 1242–1248. https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/161.6.1242
  • Huovinen, P., Sundström, L., Swedberg, G., & Sköld, O. (1995). Trimethoprim and sulfonamide resistance. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 39(2), 279–289. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.39.2.279
  • Jacewicz, M., Clausen, H., Nudelman, E., Donohue-Rolfe, A., & Keusch, G. T. (1986). Pathogenesis of shigella diarrhea. XI. Isolation of a shigella toxin-binding glycolipid from rabbit jejunum and HeLa cells and its identification as globotriaosylceramide. The Journal of Experimental Medicine, 163(6), 1391–1404. https://doi.org/10.1084/jem.163.6.1391
  • Jatt, A. N., Tunio, S. A., Memon, S. B., Qureshi, A. S., & Bhutto, M. A. (2018). API-ZYM enzymatic profile of Shigella dysenteriae IM isolated from drinking water. Pakistan Journal of Zoology, 50(3), 977–981. https://doi.org/10.17582/journal.pjz/2018.50.3.977.981
  • Keusch, G. T. (2009). Shigellosis bacterial infections of humans (pp. 699–724). Springer.
  • Khan, A. L., Hussain, J., Hamayun, M., Gilani, S. A., Ahmad, S., Rehman, G., Kim, Y.-H., Kang, S.-M., & Lee, I.-J. (2010). Secondary metabolites from Inula britannica L. and their biological activities. Molecules (Basel, Switzerland), 15(3), 1562–1577. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules15031562
  • Kim, S. R., Park, M. J., Lee, M. K., Sung, S. H., Park, E. J., Kim, J., Kim, S. Y., Oh, T. H., Markelonis, G. J., & Kim, Y. C. (2002). Flavonoids of Inula britannica protect cultured cortical cells from necrotic cell death induced by glutamate. Free Radical Biology & Medicine, 32(7), 596–604. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0891-5849(02)00751-7
  • Kotloff, K. L., Riddle, M. S., Platts-Mills, J. A., Pavlinac, P., & Zaidi, A. K. M. (2018). Shigellosis. The Lancet, 391(10122), 801–812. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)33296-8
  • Liao, X., Ying, T., Wang, H., Wang, J., Shi, Z., Feng, E., Wei, K., Wang, Y., Zhang, X., Huang, L., Su, G., & Huang, P. (2003). A two-dimensional proteome map of Shigella flexneri. Electrophoresis, 24(16), 2864–2882. https://doi.org/10.1002/elps.200305519
  • Lill, M. A., & Danielson, M. L. (2011). Computer-aided drug design platform using PyMOL. Journal of Computer-Aided Molecular Design, 25(1), 13–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10822-010-9395-8
  • Lipinski, C. A., Lombardo, F., Dominy, B. W., & Feeney, P. J. (1997). Experimental and computational approaches to estimate solubility and permeability in drug discovery and development settings. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, 23(1-3), 3–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-409X(96)00423-1
  • Lipinski, C. A., Lombardo, F., Dominy, B. W., & Feeney, P. J. (2001). Experimental and computational approaches to estimate solubility and permeability in drug discovery and development settings1PII of original article: S0169-409X(96)00423-1. The article was originally published in Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 23 (1997) 3–25.1. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, 46(1), 3–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-409X(96)00423-1
  • Maden, B. E. H. (2000). Tetrahydrofolate and tetrahydromethanopterin compared: Functionally distinct carriers in C1 metabolism. Biochemical Journal, 350(3), 609–629. https://doi.org/10.1042/0264-6021:3500609
  • Marberg, K., Altmann, G., & Eshkol-Bruck, A. (1958). Observations on resistance to sulfadiazine and antibiotics in shigellosis. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 7(1), 51–57. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.1958.7.51
  • Martin, Y. C. (2005). A bioavailability score. Journal of Medicinal Chemistry, 48(9), 3164–3170. https://doi.org/10.1021/jm0492002
  • Mehta, A. P., Doiphode, S., Dhar, A. P., & Jain, M. (1986). In malnourished children diarrhoea and malnutrition in childhood (pp. 43–49). Elsevier.
  • Metwally, N. H., Mohamed, M. S., & Ragb, E. A. (2019). Design, synthesis, anticancer evaluation, molecular docking and cell cycle analysis of 3-methyl-4,7-dihydropyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidine derivatives as potent histone lysine demethylases (KDM) inhibitors and apoptosis inducers. Bioorganic Chemistry, 88, 102929. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bioorg.2019.102929
  • Miller, N. J., & Ruiz-Larrea, M. B. (2002). Flavonoids and other plant phenols in the diet: Their significance as antioxidants. Journal of Nutritional & Environmental Medicine, 12(1), 39–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/13590840220123352
  • Miranda, A., Ávila, B., Díaz, P., Rivas, L., Bravo, K., Astudillo, J., Bueno, C., Ulloa, M. T., Hermosilla, G., Del Canto, F., Salazar, J. C., & Toro, C. S. (2016). Emergence of plasmid-borne dfrA14 trimethoprim resistance gene in Shigella sonnei. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology, 6, 77. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2016.00077
  • Mitsuhashi, S. (1971). The problems of drug-resistant pathogenic bacteria. Epidemiology and genetics of R factors. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 182(1), 141–152. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1971.tb30653.x
  • Mitsuhashi, S., Harada, K., Kameda, M., Suzuki, M., & Egawa, R. (1960). On the drug-resistance of enteric bacteria. 3. Transmission of the drug-resistance from Shigella to F–or Hfr strains of E.coli K-12. The Japanese Journal of Experimental Medicine, 30, 301–306.
  • Moore, T. (1975). World review of nutrition and dietetics. British Medical Journal, 2(5969), 508–509. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.2.5969.508-c
  • Muegge, I. (2002). Pharmacophore features of potential drugs. Chemistry - A European Journal, 8(9), 1976–1981. https://doi.org/10.1002/1521-3765(20020503)8:9<1976::AID-CHEM1976>3.0.CO;2-K
  • Murphy, G. S., Bodhidatta, L., Echeverria, P., Tansuphaswadikul, S., Hoge, C. W., Imlarp, S., & Tamura, K. (1993). Ciprofloxacin and loperamide in the treatment of bacillary dysentery. Annals of Internal Medicine, 118(8), 582–586. https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-118-8-199304150-00002
  • Navia, M., Gascon, J., & Vila, J. (2005). Analysis of the mechanisms of resistance to several antimicrobial agents in Shigella spp. causing travellers' diarrhoea. Clinical Microbiology and Infection : The Official Publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, 11(12), 1044–1047. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2005.01277.x
  • Navia, M. M., Ruiz, J., Sanchez-Cespedes, J., & Vila, J. (2003). Detection of dihydrofolate reductase genes by PCR and RFLP. Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease, 46(4), 295–298. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0732-8893(03)00062-2 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0732-8893(03)00062-2
  • Nelson, J. D., Kusmiesz, H., Jackson, L. H., & Woodman, E. (1976). Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole therapy for shigellosis. JAMA, 235(12), 1239–1243. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1976.03260380033022
  • Niyogi, S. K. (2005). Shigellosis. Journal of Microbiology, 43(2), 133–143.
  • Orsomando, G., Bozzo, G. G., de la Garza, R. D., Basset, G. J., Quinlivan, E. P., Naponelli, V., Rébeillé, F., Ravanel, S., Gregory, J. F., & Hanson, A. D. (2006). Evidence for folate-salvage reactions in plants . The Plant Journal : For Cell and Molecular Biology, 46(3), 426–435. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-313X.2006.02685.x
  • Paradh, A. D. (2015). 8 - Gram-negative spoilage bacteria in brewing. In A. E. Hill (Ed.), Brewing Microbiology (pp. 175–194). Woodhead Publishing.
  • Pazhani, G. P., Niyogi, S. K., Singh, A. K., Sen, B., Taneja, N., Kundu, M., Yamasaki, S., & Ramamurthy, T. (2008). Molecular characterization of multidrug-resistant Shigella species isolated from epidemic and endemic cases of shigellosis in India. Journal of Medical Microbiology, 57(Pt 7), 856–863. https://doi.org/10.1099/jmm.0.2008/000521-0
  • Pettersen, E. F., Goddard, T. D., Huang, C. C., Couch, G. S., Greenblatt, D. M., Meng, E. C., & Ferrin, T. E. (2004). UCSF Chimera-a visualization system for exploratory research and analysis. Journal of Computational Chemistry, 25(13), 1605–1612. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcc.20084
  • Rafi, M. O., Al-Khafaji, K., Tok, T. T., & Rahman, M. S. (2020). Computer-based identification of potential compounds from Salviae miltiorrhizae against Neirisaral adhesion A regulatory protein. Journal of Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/07391102.2020.1856189
  • Rafi, M. M., Bai, N.-S., Ho, C.-T., Rosen, R. T., White, E., Perez, D., & Dipaola, R. S. (2005). A Sesquiterpenelactone from Inula britannica induces anti-tumor effects dependent on Bcl-2 phosphorylation. Anticancer Research, 25(1A), 313.
  • Ramsby, M., & Makowski, G. (2005). Differential detergent fractionation of eukaryotic cells. In The proteomics protocols handbook (pp. 37–48). Springer.
  • Riddle, M. S., Sanders, J. W., Putnam, S. D., & Tribble, D. R. (2006). Incidence, etiology, and impact of diarrhea among long-term travelers (US military and similar populations): A systematic review. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 74(5), 891–900. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.2006.74.891
  • Santiago-Saenz, Y. O., Hernández-Fuentes, A. D., López-Palestina, C. U., Garrido-Cauich, J. H., Alatorre-Cruz, J. M., & Monroy-Torres, R. (2019). Importancia nutricional y actividad biológica de los compuestos bioactivos de quelites consumidos en México. Revista Chilena de Nutrición, 46(5), 593–605. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0717-75182019000500593
  • Singh, N., Dalal, V., & Kumar, P. (2017). Structure based mimicking of Phthalic acid esters (PAEs) and inhibition of hACMSD, an important enzyme of the tryptophan kynurenine metabolism pathway. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2017.12.005
  • Song, Q.-H., Kobayashi, T., Hong, T., & Cyong, J.-C. (2002). Effects of Inula Britannica on the production of antibodies and cytokines and on T cell differentiation in C57BL/6 mice immunized by ovalbumin. The American Journal of Chinese Medicine, 30(2-3), 297–305. https://doi.org/10.1142/S0192415X02000211
  • Song, Q.-H., Kobayashi, T., Iijima, K., Hong, T., & Cyong, J.-C. (2000). Hepatoprotective effects of Inula britannica on hepatic injury in mice. Phytotherapy Research, 14(3), 180–186. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1573(200005)14:3<180::AID-PTR589>3.0.CO;2-H
  • Speelman, P., McGlaughlin, R., Kabir, I., & Butler, T. (1987). Differential clinical features and stool findings in shigellosis and amoebic dysentery. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 81(4), 549–551. https://doi.org/10.1016/0035-9203(87)90402-0
  • Taneja, N., & Mewara, A. (2016). Shigellosis: Epidemiology in India. The Indian Journal of Medical Research, 143(5), 565–576. https://doi.org/10.4103/0971-5916.187104
  • Teague, S. J., Davis, A. M., Leeson, P. D., & Oprea, T. (1999). The design of leadlike combinatorial libraries. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 38(24), 3743–3748. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1521-3773(19991216)38:24<3743::AID-ANIE3743>3.0.CO;2-U
  • Tian, W., Chen, C., Lei, X., Zhao, J., & Liang, J. (2018). CASTp 3.0: Computed atlas of surface topography of proteins. Nucleic Acids Research, 46(W1), W363–W367. https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gky473
  • Trott, O., & Olson, A. J. (2010). AutoDock vina: Improving the speed and accuracy of docking with a new scoring function, efficient optimization, and multithreading. Journal of Computational Chemistry, 31(2), 455–461. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcc.21334
  • Tuttle, J., Ries, A. A., Chimba, R. M., Perera, C., Bean, N. H., & Griffin, P. M. (1995). Antimicrobial-resistant epidemic Shigella dysenteriae type 1 in Zambia: Modes of transmission. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 171(2), 371–375. https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/171.2.371
  • Van den Beld, M., & Reubsaet, F. (2012). Differentiation between Shigella, enteroinvasive Escherichia coli (EIEC) and noninvasive Escherichia coli. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases: Official Publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology, 31(6), 899–904. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10096-011-1395-7
  • Veber, D. F., Johnson, S. R., Cheng, H.-Y., Smith, B. R., Ward, K. W., & Kopple, K. D. (2002). Molecular properties that influence the oral bioavailability of drug candidates. Journal of Medicinal Chemistry, 45(12), 2615–2623. https://doi.org/10.1021/jm020017n
  • von Seidlein, L., Kim, D. R., Ali, M., Lee, H., Wang, X., Thiem, V. D., Canh, D. G., Chaicumpa, W., Agtini, M. D., Hossain, A., Bhutta, Z. A., Mason, C., Sethabutr, O., Talukder, K., Nair, G. B., Deen, J. L., Kotloff, K., & Clemens, J. (2006). A multicentre study of Shigella diarrhoea in six Asian countries: Disease burden, clinical manifestations, and microbiology. PLoS Medicine, 3(9), e353. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.0030353
  • Waterhouse, A., Bertoni, M., Bienert, S., Studer, G., Tauriello, G., Gumienny, R., Heer, F. T., de Beer, T. A. P., Rempfer, C., Bordoli, L., Lepore, R., & Schwede, T. (2018). SWISS-MODEL: Homology modelling of protein structures and complexes. Nucleic Acids Research, 46(W1), W296–W303. https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gky427
  • Xie, Y., Yang, W., Tang, F., Chen, X., & Ren, L. (2015). Antibacterial activities of flavonoids: structure-activity relationship and mechanism. Current Medicinal Chemistry, 22(1), 132–149. https://doi.org/10.2174/0929867321666140916113443
  • Zafar, A., Sabir, N., & Bhutta, Z. (2005). Frequency of isolation of Shigella serogroups/serotypes and their antimicrobial susceptibility pattern in children from slum areas in Karachi. Journal of Pakistan Medical Association, 55(5), 184.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.