759
Views
9
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

Mothers of children born of genocidal rape in Rwanda: Implications for mental health, well-being and psycho-social support interventions

&
Pages 813-828 | Received 06 Aug 2018, Accepted 15 Jan 2019, Published online: 14 May 2019

References

  • Bass, J. K., Annan, J., McIvor Murray, S., Kaysen, D., Griffiths, S., Cetinoglu, T., … & Bolton, P. A. (2013). Controlled trial of psychotherapy for Congolese survivors of sexual violence. The New England Journal of Medicine, 368(23), 2182–2191.
  • Bilotta, N., & Denov, M. (2017). Theoretical understandings of unaccompanied young people affected by war: Bridging divides and embracing local ways of kowing. The British Hournal of Social Work, 1–18. doi:10.1093/bjsw/bcx130
  • Blanchet-Cohen, N., Denov, M., Fraser, S., & Bilotta, N. (2017). The nexus of war, resettlement, and education: War-affected youth’s perspectives and responses to the Quebec education system. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 60, 160–168. doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2017.04.016
  • Boothby, N. (2008). Political violence and development: An ecologic approach to children in war zones. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics, 17(3), 497–514. doi:10.1016/j.chc.2008.02.004
  • Bronfenbrenner, U. (1986). Ecology of the family as a context for human development: Research perspectives. Developmental Psychology, 22(6), 723. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.22.6.723
  • Carpenter, R. C. (2007). Born of war: Protecting children of sexual violence survivors in conflict zones. United States: Kumarian Press, Inc.
  • Carpenter, R. C. (2010). Forgetting children born of war: Setting the human rights agenda in Bosnia and beyond. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
  • Coker, A. L., Smith, P. H., Thompson, M. P., McKeown, R. E., Bethea, L., & Davis, K. E. (2002). Social support protects against the negative effects of partner violence on mental health. Journal of Womens Health and Gender Based Medicine, 11(5), 465–476. doi:10.1089/15246090260137644
  • Creswell, J. (2013). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions. Thousands Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
  • de Brouwer, A. M., Chu, S., & Muscati, S. (2009). The men who killed me: Rwandan survivors of sexual violence. Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre.
  • de Jong, K., Knipscheer, J. W., Ford, N., & Kleber, R. J. (2014). The efficacy of psychosocial interventions for adults in contexts of ongoing man-made violence: A systematic review. Health, 6(6), 504–516. doi:10.4236/health.2014.66070
  • Denov, M. (2015). Children born of wartime rape: The intergenerational realities of sexual violence and abuse. Ethics, Medicine and Public Health, 11, 61–68. doi:10.1016/j.jemep.2015.02.001
  • Denov, M., Green, A., Lakor, A. A., & Arach, J. (2018). Mothering in the aftermath of force marriage and wartime rape: The complexities of motherhood in post-war northern Uganda. Journal of the Motherhood Initiative, 9(1), 156–174.
  • Denov, M., Woolner, L., Bahati, J., Nkusi, P., & Shyaka, O. (2017). The intergenerational legacy of genocidal rape: The realities & perspectives of children born of the Rwandan genocide. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 1–22. doi:10.1177/0886260517708407
  • Denov, M., & Lakor, A. A. (2017). When war is better than peace: The post-conflict realities of children born of wartime rape in Northern Uganda. Child Abuse & Neglect, 65, 255–265.
  • Denov, M., & Lakor, A. A. (2018). Post-war stigma, violence, and “kony children”: The responsibility to protect children born in Lord’s Resistance Army Captivity in Northern Uganda. Global Responsibility to Protect, 10(1–2), 217–238. doi:10.1163/1875984X-01001011
  • Di Tomasso, T. (2010). Approaches to counselling resettled refugee and asylum seeker survivors of organized violence. International Journal of Child, Youth and Family Studies, 1(3/4), 244–264. doi:10.18357/ijcyfs13/420102086
  • Hassan, J. (2003). “A house next door to trauma”: Learning from Holocaust survivors how to respond to atrocity. London, UK: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
  • Hassan, G., Kirmayer, L. J., Mekki-Berrada, A., Quosh, C., el Chammay, R., Deville-Stoetzel, J. B., … & Ventevogel, P. (2015). Culture, context and the mental health and psychosocial wellbeing of Syrians: A review for mental health and psychosocial support staff working with Syrians affected by armed conflict. Geneva: UNHCR.
  • Heijnders, M., & Van Der Meij, S. (2006). The fight against stigma: An overview of stigma-reduction strategies and interventions. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 11, 353–363. doi:10.1080/13548500600595327
  • Hustache, S., Moro, M.-R., Roptin, J., Souza, R., Gansou, G., Mbemba, A., … & Baubet, T. (2009). Evaluation of psychological support for victims of sexual violence in a conflict setting: Results from Brazzaville, Congo. International Journal of Mental Health Systems, 3(1), 7. doi:10.1186/1752-4458-3-7
  • Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC). (2005). IASC guidelines for gender-based vioence in humanitarian settings. Geneva: IASC.
  • Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC). (2007). IASC guidelines on mental health and psychosocial support in emergency settings. Geneva: IASC.
  • Johnson, K., Asher, J., Rosborough, S., Raja, A., Panjabi, R., Beadling, C., & Lawry, L. (2008). Association of combatant status and sexual violence with health and mental health outcomes in postconflict Liberia. JAMA, 300(6), 676–690.
  • Johnson, K., Scott, J., Rughita, B., Kisielewski, M., Asher, J., Ong, R., & Lawry, L. (2010). Association of sexual violence and human rights violations with physical and mental health in territories of the Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. JAMA, 304(5), 553–562. doi:10.1001/jama.2010.1086
  • Johnson, H., & Thompson, A. (2008). The development and maintenance of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in civilian adult survivors of war trauma and torture: A review. Clinical Psychological Review, 28(1), 36–47. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2007.01.017
  • Josse, E. (2010). ‘They came with two guns’: The consequences of sexual violence for the mental health of women in armed conflicts. International Review of the Red Cross, 92(877), 177–195. doi:10.1017/S1816383110000251
  • Kahn, S., & Denov, M. (in press). “We are children like others”: Pathways to mental health and healing for children born of genocidal rape in Rwanda. Transcultural Psychiatry.
  • Kantengwa, O. (2014). How motherhood triumphs over trauma among mothers with children from genocidal rape in Rwanda. Journal of Social and Political Psychology, 2(1), 417–434. doi:10.5964/jspp.v2i1.334
  • Kaputu-Kalala-Malu, C., Walker, T. D., Ntumba-Tshitenge, O., Mafuta, E. M., Tugirimana, P. L., & Misson, J. P. (2016). The challenge of managing headache disorders in a tertiary referral neurology clinic in Rwanda. Neurosciences, 21(2), 151–157. doi:10.17712/nsj.2016.2.20150640
  • Kelly, J. T., Betancourt, T. S., Mukwege, D., Lipton, R., & VanRooyen, M. J. (2011). Experiences of female survivors of sexual violence in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo: A mixed-methods study. Conflict and Health, 5(1), 25. doi:10.1186/1752-1505-5-25
  • Keygnaert, I., Vettenburg, N., & Temmerman, M. (2012). Hidden violence is silent rape: Sexual and gender-based violence in refugees, asylum seekers and undocumented migrants in Belgium and the Netherlands. Culture, Health and Sexuality, 14(5), 505–520. doi:10.1080/13691058.2012.671961
  • Kimerling, R., & Calhoun, K. S. (1994). Somatic symptoms, social support, and treatment seeking among sexual assault victims. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62(2), 333–340. doi:10.1037//0022-006X.62.2.333
  • Kirmayer, L. J., Kienzler, H., Afana, A. H., & Pedersen, D. (2010). Trauma and disasters in social and cultural context. Principles of social psychiatry. New York: Wiley-Blackwell.
  • Kohli, A., Makambo, M., Ramazani, P., Zahiga, I., Mbika, B., Safari, O., Bachunguye, R., … & Glass, N. (2012). A Congolese community-based health program for survivors of sexual violence. Conflict and Health, 6(1), 6. doi:10.1186/1752-1505-6-6
  • Kohli, A., Perrin, N. A., Mpanano, R. M., Mullany, L. C., Murhula, C. M., Binkurhorhwa, A. K., … & Glass, N. (2014). Risk for family rejection and associated mental health outcomes amongst conflict-affected adult women living in rural eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Health Care for Women International, 35(7–9), 789–807. doi:10.1080/07399332.2014.903953
  • Kostelny, K. (2006). A culture-based, integrative approach. In N. Boothby, A. Strang & M. Wessells (Eds.), A world turned upside down: Social ecological approaches to children in war zones (pp. 19–38). Bloomfield, CT: Kumarian Press.
  • Lekskes, J., van Hooren, S., & de Beus, J. (2007). Appraisal of psychosocial interventions in Liberia. International Journal of Mental Health, Psychosocial Work & Counselling in Areas of Armed Conflict, 5, 18–26. doi:10.1097/WTF.0b013e3280be5b47
  • Link, B. G., & Phelan, J. C. (2001). Conceptualizing stigma. Annual Review of Sociology, 27, 363–385. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.363
  • Linden, J. A. (2011). Clinical practice. Care of the adult patient after sexual assault. New England Journal of Medicine, 365(9), 834–841. doi:10.1056/NEJMcp1102869
  • Mukamana, D., & Brysiewicz, P. (2008). The lived experience of genocide rape survivors in Rwanda. Journal of Nursing Scholarship: An Official Publication of Sigma Theta Tau International Honor Society of Nursing, 40(4), 379–384.
  • Mukangendo, M. C. (2007). Caring for children born of rape in Rwanda. In R. C. Carpenter (Ed.), Born of war: Protecting children of sexual violence survivors in conflict zones (pp. 40–52). Bloomfield, CT: Kumarian Press.
  • Patel, V., & Prince, M. (2010). Global mental health: A new global health field comes of age. Journal of American Medical Association, 303(19), 1976–1977.
  • Rouhani, S. A., Scott, J., Greiner, A., Albutt, K., Hacker, M. R., Kuwert, P., VanRooyen, M., & Bartels, S. (2015). Stigma and parenting children conceived from sexual violence. Pediatrics, 136(5), e1195–e1203.
  • Schopper, D. (2014). Responding to the needs of survivors of sexual violence: Do we know what works? International Review of the Red Cross, 96(894), 585–600. doi:10.1017/S1816383114000460
  • Scott, J., Rouhani, S., Greiner, A., Albutt, K., Kuwert, P., Hacker, M. R., … & Bartels, S. (2015). Respondent-driven sampling to assess mental health outcomes, stigma and acceptance among women raising children born from sexual violence-related pregnancies in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. BMJ Open, 5(4), e007057. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2014-007057
  • Shanahan, F., & Veale, A. (2016). How mothers mediate the social integration of their children conceived of forced marriage within the Lord’s Resistance Army. Child Abuse &Neglect, 51, 72–86.
  • Sharlach, L. (2000). Rape as genocide: Bangladesh, the former Yugoslavia, and Rwanda. New Political Science, 22(1), 89–102. doi:10.1080/713687893
  • Spangaro, J., Adogu, C., Ranmuthugala, G., Powell Davies, G., Steinacker, L., & Zwi, A. (2013). What evidence exists for initiatives to reduce risk and incidence of sexual violence in armed conflict and other humanitarian crises? A systematic review. PLoS One, 8(5), e62600. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0062600
  • Stangl, A. L., Lloyd, J. K., Brady, L. M., Holland, C. E., & Baral, S. (2013). A systematic review of interventions to reduce HIV-related stigma and discrimination from 2002 to 2013: How far have we come? Journal of the International Aids Society, 16(3 Suppl 2), 18734.
  • Stein, M. B., Lang, A. J., Laffaye, C., Satz, L. E., Lenox, R. J., & Dresselhaus, T. R. (2004). Relationship of sexual assault history to somatic symptoms and health anxiety in women. General Hospital Psychiatry, 26(3), 178–183. doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2003.11.003
  • Tol, W. A., Stavrou, V., Greene, M. C., Mergenthaler, C., van Ommeren, M., & García Moreno, C. (2013). Sexual and gender-based violence in areas of armed conflict: A systematic review of mental health and psychosocial support interventions. Conflict and Health, 7(1), 16. doi:10.1186/1752-1505-7-16
  • Umulisa, C. (2015). We are also mothers: Rwandan women with children born of genocide. In A. Sgoutas & T. Takseva (Eds.), Mothers under fire: Mothering in conflict areas (pp. 137–154). Bradford, ON: Demeter Press.
  • Van Ee, E., & Kleber, R. J. (2013). Growing up under a shadow: Key issues in research on and treatment of children born of rape. Child Abuse Review, 22(6), 386–397. doi:10.1002/car.2270
  • Vu, A., Adam, A., Wirtz, A., Pham, K., Rubenstein, L., Glass, N., … & Singh, S. (2014). The prevalence of sexual violence among female refugees in complex humanitarian emergencies: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Plos Currents, 18, 6.
  • Ward, J., & Marsh, M. (2006). Sexual violence against women and girls in war and its aftermath: Realities, responses, and required resources. Belgium: United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA).
  • Wessells, M. G. (2009). Do no harm: Toward contextually appropriate psychosocial support in international emergencies. American Psychologist, 64(8), 842–854. Retrieved from http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/amp/64/8/842.pdf
  • Woolner, L., Denov, M., & Kahn, S. (2018). “I Asked Myself if I Would Ever Love My Baby”: Mothering children born of genocidal rape in Rwanda. Violence against Women, doi:10.1177/1077801218801110
  • World Bank and Harvard Humanitarian Initiative (HHI). (2014). Assessing the impact of programming to reduce the stigmatization of survivors of sexual violence in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. Washington, DC: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank.
  • Zraly, M., Rubin, S. E., & Mukamana, D. (2013). Motherhood and resilience among Rwandan genocide-rape survivors. Ethos, 41(4), 411–439. doi:10.1111/etho.12031

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.