When does Race and Gender Matter? The Interrelationships between the Gender of Probation Officers and Juvenile Court Detention and Intake Outcomes

References

• Belknap, J. (2001). The invisible woman: Gender, crime and justice. Belmont, CA: West/Wadsworth.
   Google Scholar
• Bishop, D. M., & Frazier, C. E. (1992). Gender bias in juvenile justice processing: Implications of the JJDP act. Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, 82, 1162-1186.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bishop, D. M., & Frazier, C. E. (1996). Race effects in juvenile justice decision-making: Findings of a statewide analysis. The Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, 86, 392-414.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bishop, D., & Leiber, M. (2012). Race, ethnicity, and juvenile justice: Racial and ethnic differences in delinquency and justice system responses. In D. Bishop & B. Feld (Eds.), Juvenile justice (pp. 445-484). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bishop, D. M., Leiber, M., & Johnson, J. (2010). Contexts of decision making in the juvenile justice system: An organizational approach to understanding minority overrepresentation. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 8, 213-233.10.1177/1541204009361177
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bridges, G., Conley, D., Engen, R., & Price-Spratlen, T. (1995). Racial disparities in the confinement of juveniles: Effects of crime and community social structure on punishment. In K. Kempf-Leonard, C. Pope, & W. Feyerherm (Eds.), Minorities in Juvenile Justice (pp. 128-152). Belmont, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Bridges, G. S., & Steen, S. (1998). Racial disparities in official assessments of juvenile offenders: Attributional stereotypes as mediating mechanisms. American Sociological Review, 63, 554-570.10.2307/2657267
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burgess-Proctor, A. (2006). Intersections of race, class, gender, and crime: Future directions for feminist criminology. Feminist Criminology, 1, 27-47.10.1177/1557085105282899
   Google Scholar
• Chesney-Lind, M. (1973). Judicial enforcement of the female sex role: The family court and the female delinquent. Issues in Criminology, 82, 51-69.
   Google Scholar
• Chesney-Lind, M. (2006). Patriarchy, crime, and justice: Feminist criminology in an era of backlash. Feminist Criminology, 1, 6-26.10.1177/1557085105282893
   Google Scholar
• Chodorow, N. (1978). The reproduction of mothering. Berkeley: University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• Cook, B. (1981). Will women judges make a difference in women’s legal rights? A prediction from attitudes and simulated behavior. In M. Rendel (Ed.), Women, power, and political systems (pp. 216-239). New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press.
   Google Scholar
• Daly, K., & Stephens, D. J. (1995). The ‘‘dark figure’’ of criminology: Towards a black and multi-ethnic feminist agenda for theory and research. In N. Hahn Rafter & F. Heidensohn (Eds.), International feminist perspectives in criminology: Engendering a discipline (pp. 189-215). Philadelphia, PA: Open University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Davis, T. L., Severy, L. J., Kraus, S. J., & Whitaker, J. M. (1993). Predictors of sentencing decisions: The beliefs, personality variables, and demographic factors of juvenile justice. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 23, 451-477.10.1111/jasp.1993.23.issue-6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Epstein, C. (1988). Descriptive distinctions: Sex, gender, and the social order. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Frazier, C. E., & Cochran, J. K. (1986). Official intervention, diversion from the juvenile justice system, and dynamics of human services work: Effects of a reform goal based on labeling theory. Crime & Delinquency, 32, 157-176.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freiburger, T. L., & Jordan, K. L. (2011). A multilevel analysis of race on the decision to petition a case in the juvenile court. Race and Justice, 1, 185-201.10.1177/2153368710383869
   Google Scholar
• Gaarder, E., Rodriguez, N., & Zatz, M. S. (2004). Criers, liars, and manipulators: Probation officers’ views of girls. Justice Quarterly, 21, 547-578.10.1080/07418820400095901
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giele, J. Z. (1988). Gender and sex roles. In N. J. Smelser (Ed.), Handbook of sociology (pp. 291-323). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women’s development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Goldman, S. (1999). Picking federal judges: Lower court selection from Roosevelt through Reagan. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Guevara, L., Herz, D., & Spohn, C. (2006). Gender and juvenile justice decision making: What role does race play? Feminist Criminology, 1, 258-282.10.1177/1557085106292778
   Google Scholar
• Guevara, L., Herz, D., & Spohn, C. (2008). Race, gender, and legal counsel: Differential outcomes in two juvenile courts. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 6, 83-104.10.1177/1541204007303939
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harris, A. (2007). Diverting and abdicating judicial discretion: Cultural, political, and procedural dynamics in California juvenile justice. Law & Society Review, 41, 387-428.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holman, B., & Ziedenberg, J. (2006). The dangers of detention (p. 4). Washington, DC: Justice Policy Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Iowa Division of Criminal and Juvenile Justice Planning and Statistics. (2000, April). Youth development approach for Iowa's children and families. Formula grant application and three-year comprehensive plan. Des Moines, IA: Author.
   Google Scholar
• Iowa DMC Resource Center. (2009). Retreived from http://www.uiowa.edu/~nrcfcp/dmcrc/
   Google Scholar
• Johnson, B. (2014). Judges on trial a reexamination of judicial race and gender effects across modes of conviction. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 25, 159-184.10.1177/0887403412463933
   Google Scholar
• Kempf-Leonard, K., & Sontheimer, H. (1995). The role of race in juvenile justice in Pennsylvania. In K. Kempf-Leonard, C. Pope, & W. Feyerhem (Eds.), Minorities in juvenile justice (pp. 98-127). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Lehman, E. (1993). Gender and work: The case of the clergy. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
   Google Scholar
• Leiber, M. J. (2003). The contexts of juvenile justice decision making: When race matters. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
   Google Scholar
• Leiber, M. J. (2013). Race, pre-and postdetention, and juvenile justice decision making. Crime & Delinquency, 59, 396-418.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leiber, M., Bishop, D., & Chamlin, M. B. (2011). Juvenile justice decision‐making before and after the implementation of the disproportionate minority contact (DMC) mandate. Justice Quarterly, 28, 460-492.10.1080/07418825.2010.516005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leiber, M. J., & Brubaker, S. J. (2010). Does the gender of the intake probation officer contextualize the treatment of black youth? Justice Research and Policy, 12, 51-76.10.3818/JRP.12.2.2010.51
   Google Scholar
• Leiber, M. J., Brubaker, S. J., & Fox, K. C. (2009). A closer look at the individual and joint effects of gender and race on juvenile justice decision making. Feminist Criminology, 4, 333-358.10.1177/1557085109338564
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leiber, M. J., & Fox, K. C. (2005). Race and the impact of detention on juvenile justice decision making. Crime & Delinquency, 51, 470-497.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leiber, M., & Mack, K. (2003). The individual and joint effects of race, gender, and family status on juvenile justice decision-making. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 40, 34-70.10.1177/0022427802239253
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Long, J. S. (1997). Regression models for categorical and limited dependent variables, Vol. 7. Belmont, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• MacDonald, J. M., & Chesney-Lind, M. (2001). Gender bias and juvenile justice revisited: A multiyear analysis. Crime & Delinquency, 47, 173-195.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paternoster, R., Brame, R., Mazerolle, P., & Piquero, A. (1998). Using the correct statistical test for the equality of regression coefficients. Criminology, 36, 859-866.10.1111/crim.1998.36.issue-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peck, J. H., Leiber, M. J., & Brubaker, S. J. (2014). Gender, race, and juvenile court outcomes: An examination of status offenders. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 12, 250-267.10.1177/1541204013489713
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Price, B., & Sokoloff, N. (2004). The criminal justice system and women: Offenders, victims, and workers. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Puzzanchera, C., & W. Kang (2013). Easy access to juvenile court statistics: 1985–2010. Retrieved from http://www.ojjdp.gov/ojstatbb/ezajcs/
   Google Scholar
• Rodriguez, N. (2013). Concentrated disadvantage and the incarceration of youth: Examining how context affects juvenile justice. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 50, 189-215.10.1177/0022427811425538
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodriguez, N., Smith, H., & Zatz, M. (2009). “Youth is enmeshed in a highly dysfunctional family system”: Exploring the relationship among dysfunctional families, parental incarceration, and juvenile court decision making. Criminology, 47, 177-208.10.1111/crim.2009.47.issue-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sabin, D. J. A., Nosek, D. B. A., Greenwald, D. A. G., & Rivara, D. F. P. (2009). Physicians’ implicit and explicit attitudes about race by MD race, ethnicity, and gender. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 20, 896-913.10.1353/hpu.0.0185
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shook, J. J., & Goodkind, S. A. (2009). Racial disproportionality in juvenile justice: The interaction of race and geography in pretrial detention for violent and serious offenses. Race and Social Problems, 1, 257-266.10.1007/s12552-009-9021-3
   Google Scholar
• Spohn, C. (1990). Decision making in sexual assault cases: Do black and female judges make a difference? Women and Criminal Justice, 2, 83-105.
   Google Scholar
• Spohn, C. (2008). How do judges decide: The search for fairness and justice in punishment (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Spohn, C., & Holleran, D. (2000). Research note: The imprisonment penalty paid by young, unemployed black and Hispanic male offenders. Criminology, 38, 501-526.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steffensmeier, D., & Britt, C. L. (2001). Judges’ race and judicial decision making: Do black judges sentence differently? Social Science Quarterly, 82, 749-764.10.1111/ssqu.2001.82.issue-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steffensmeier, D., & Hebert, C. (1999). Women and men policymakers: Does the judge’s gender affect the sentencing of criminal defendants? Social Forces, 77, 1163-1196.10.1093/sf/77.3.1163
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steffensmeier, D., Ulmer, J., & Kramer, J. (1998). The interaction of race, gender, and age in criminal sentencing: The punishment cost of being young, black, and male. Criminology, 36, 763-798.10.1111/crim.1998.36.issue-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tittle, C. R., & Curran, D. A. (1988). Contingencies for dispositional disparities in juvenile justice. Social Forces, 67, 23-58.10.1093/sf/67.1.23
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tracy, P. (2005). Race, ethnicity, and juvenile justice. In D. F. Hawkins & K. Kempf-Leonard (Eds.), Our children, their children: Confronting racial and ethnic differences in American juvenile justice (pp. 245-269). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Tracy, P. E., Kempf-Leonard, K., & Abramoske-James, S. (2009). Gender differences in delinquency and juvenile justice processing evidence from national data. Crime & Delinquency, 55, 171-215.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• US Census Bureau. (1980). Census summary file 1. Retrieved from http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/nav/jsf/pages/searchresults.xhtml?refresh=t
   Google Scholar
• US Census Bureau. (1990). Census summary file 1. Retrieved from http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/nav/jsf/pages/searchresults.xhtml?refresh=t
   Google Scholar
• US Census Bureau. (2000). Census summary file 1. Retrieved from http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/nav/jsf/pages/searchresults.xhtml?refresh=t
   Google Scholar
• Ward, G., & Kupchik, A. (2009). Accountable to what? Professional orientations towards accountability-based juvenile justice. Punishment & Society, 11, 85-109.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Welch, S., Combs, M., & Gruhl, J. (1988). Do black judges make a difference? American Journal of Political Science, 32, 126-136.10.2307/2111313
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zatz, M. (2000). The convergence of race, ethnicity, gender, and class on court decision making: Looking toward the 21st century: Vol. 3: Criminal justice. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice.
   Google Scholar