Police Occupational Culture: Testing the Monolithic ModelFootnote^*

* Points of view are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. An earlier version of this manuscript was presented at the Southern Criminal Justice Association Meeting in Savannah, Georgia, in September 2016.

References

• Armacost, B. E. (2003). Organizational culture and police misconduct. The George Washington Law Review, 72, 453.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Banton, M. (1964). The policeman in the community. London: Tavistock Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bayley, D. H., & Bittner, E. (1984). Learning the skills of policing. Law and Contemporary Problems, 47, 35-59.10.2307/1191686
   Google Scholar
• Benson, R. W. (2000). Changing police culture: The sine qua non of reform. Loyola of Los Angeles Law Review, 34, 681.
   Google Scholar
• Bittner, E. (1970). The functions of police in modern society. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.
   Google Scholar
• Bittner, E. (1974). Florence Nightingale in pursuit of Willie Sutton: A theory of the police. In H. Jacob (Ed.), The potential for reform of criminal justice (pp. 17-44). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Brandl, S. G., Stroshine, M. S., & Frank, J. (2001). Who are the complaint-prone officers? Journal of Criminal Justice, 29, 521-529.10.1016/S0047-2352(01)00114-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Broderick, J. J. (1977). Police in a time of change. Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.
   Google Scholar
• Brown, M. K. (1988). Working the street: Police discretion and the dilemmas of reform. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Carter, L. H. (1974). The limits of order. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
   Google Scholar
• Chan, J. (1996). Changing police culture. British Journal of Criminology, 36, 100-134.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan, J. B. (1997). Changing police culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511518195
   Google Scholar
• Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 9, 233-255.10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chevigny, P. (1969). Police power: Police abuses in New York City. New York, NY: Random House.
   Google Scholar
• Christopher, W. (1991). Report of the independent commission on the Los Angeles Police Department. Los Angeles, CA: Diane Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Cochran, J. K., & Bromley, M. L. (2003). The myth(?) of the police sub-culture. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 26, 88-117.10.1108/13639510310460314
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cole, D. A., & Maxwell, S. E. (2003). Testing mediational models with longitudinal data: Questions and tips in the use of structural equation modeling. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112, 558-577.10.1037/0021-843X.112.4.558
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• COPS Office. (2015). President’s task force on 21st century policing implementation guide: Moving from recommendations to action. Washington, DC: Office of Community Oriented Policing Services.
   Google Scholar
• Crank, J. P. (1998). Understanding police culture. Cincinnati, OH: Anderson Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Crank, J. P. (2004). Understanding police culture (2nd ed.). Cincinnati, OH: Anderson Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Crank, J. P., Regoli, R., Hewitt, J., & Culbertson, R. (1995). Institutional and organizational antecedents of role stress, work alienation, and anomie among police executives. Criminal Justice & Behavior, 22, 152-171.10.1177/0093854895022002004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cullen, F. T., Link, B. G., Travis, L. F., III, & Lemming, T. (1983). Paradoxes in policing: A note on perceptions of danger. Journal of Police Science and Administration, 11, 457-462.
   Google Scholar
• Cullen, F. T., Lutze, F. E., Link, B. G., & Wolfe, N. T. (1989). The correctional orientation of prison guards: Do officers support rehabilitation? Federal Probation, 53, 34-41.
   Google Scholar
• Dantzker, M. L. (1997). Police officer job satisfaction: Does agency size make a difference? Criminal Justice Policy Review, 8, 309-322.10.1177/088740349700800209
   Google Scholar
• Dean, G. (1995). Police reform: Rethinking operational policing. Journal of Criminal Justice, 23, 337-347.10.1016/0047-2352(95)00024-K
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drummond, D. S. (1976). Police culture. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Ericson, R. (1982). Reproducing order. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.10.3138/9781442679245
   Google Scholar
• Fielding, N. G. (1988). Joining forces: Police training, socialization and occupational competence. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Fridell, L. A. (2017). Producing bias-free policing: A science-based approach. New York, NY: Springer Publishing.10.1007/978-3-319-33175-1
   Google Scholar
• Gau, J. M. (2010). Basic principles and practices of structural equation modeling in criminal justice and criminology research. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 21, 136-151.10.1080/10511251003693660
   Google Scholar
• Gau, J. M., & Brunson, R. K. (2010). Procedural justice and order maintenance policing: A study of inner‐city young men’s perceptions of police legitimacy. Justice Quarterly, 27, 255-279.10.1080/07418820902763889
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gau, J. M., Terrill, W., & Paoline, E. A., III. (2013). Looking up. Criminal Justice & Behavior, 40, 247-269.10.1177/0093854812458426
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greene, J. R. (2000). Community policing in America: Changing the nature, structure, and function of the police. In J. Horney (Ed.), Criminal justice 2000: Policies, processes, and decisions of the criminal justice system (Vol. 3, pp. 299-370). Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.
   Google Scholar
• Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Herbert, S. (1996). Morality in law enforcement: Chasing ‘bad guys’ with the Los Angeles Police Department. Law & Society Review, 30, 798-818.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herbert, S. (1998). Police subculture reconsidered. Criminology, 36, 343-370.10.1111/crim.1998.36.issue-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1-55.10.1080/10705519909540118
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ingram, J. R., Paoline, E. A., III, & Terrill, W. (2013). A multilevel framework for understanding police culture: The role of the workgroup. Criminology, 51, 365-397.10.1111/crim.2013.51.issue-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jermier, J. M., Slocum, J. W., Jr., Fry, L. W., & Gaines, J. (1991). Organizational subcultures in a soft bureaucracy: Resistance behind the myth and facade of an official culture. Organization Science, 2, 170-194.10.1287/orsc.2.2.170
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kappeler, V. E., Sluder, R. D., & Alpert, G. P. (1998). Forces of deviance: Understanding the dark side of policing (2nd ed.). Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kauffman, K. (1988). Prison officers and their world. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kelling, G. L., & Kliesmet, R. B. (1996). Police unions, police culture, and police abuse of force. In W. A. Geller & H. H. Toch (Eds.), Police violence (pp. 191-212). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kerner Commission. (1968). National advisory commission on civil disorder. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.
   Google Scholar
• Kleinig, J. (2001). The blue wall of silence. International Journal of Applied Philosophy, 15(1), 1-23.10.5840/ijap20011515
   Google Scholar
• Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (3rd ed.). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Klinger, D. A. (1997). Negotiating order in patrol work: An ecological theory of police response to deviance. Criminology, 35, 277-306.10.1111/crim.1997.35.issue-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klockars, C. B. (1985). Order maintenance, the quality of urban life, and police: A different line of argument. In W. A. Geller (Ed.), Police leadership in America: Crisis and opportunity (pp. 309-321). New York, NY: Praeger.
   Google Scholar
• Koeske, G. F., Kirk, S. A., & Koeske, R. D. (1993). Coping with job stress: Which strategies work best? Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 66, 319-335.10.1111/joop.1993.66.issue-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Latack, J. C., & Havlovic, S. J. (1992). Coping with job stress: A conceptual evaluation framework for coping measures. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 13, 479-508.10.1002/(ISSN)1099-1379
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lersch, K. M., & Mieczkowski, T. (1996). Who are the problem-prone officers? An analysis of citizen complaints. American Journal of Police, 15, 23-44.10.1108/07358549610129613
   Google Scholar
• Lersch, K. M., & Mieczkowski, T. (2000). An examination of the convergence and divergence of internal and external allegations of misconduct filed against police officers. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 23, 54-68.10.1108/13639510010314616
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maguire, E. R. (2003). Organizational structure in American police agencies: Context, complexity, and control. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
   Google Scholar
• Manning, P. K. (2005). The study of police. Police quarterly, 8, 23-44.10.1177/1098611104267325
   Google Scholar
• Manning, P. K. (2007). A dialectic of organisational and occupational culture. In M. E. O’Neill, M. Marks, & A. Singh (Eds.), Police occupational culture: New debates and directions (pp. 47-83). New York, NY: Elsevier.
   Google Scholar
• Mather, L. M. (1974). The outsider in the courtroom: An alternative role for the defense. In H. Jacob (Ed.), The potential for reform of criminal justice (pp. 17-45). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Maxwell, S. E., & Cole, D. A. (2007). Bias in cross-sectional analyses of longitudinal mediation. Psychological Methods, 12, 23-44.10.1037/1082-989X.12.1.23
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maxwell, S. E., Cole, D. A., & Mitchell, M. A. (2011). Bias in cross-sectional analyses of longitudinal mediation: Partial and complete mediation under an autoregressive model. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 46, 816-841.10.1080/00273171.2011.606716
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mazerolle, L., Sargeant, E., Cherney, A., Bennett, S., Murphy, K., Antrobus, E., & Martin, P. (2014). Procedural justice and legitimacy in policing. New York, NY: Springer.10.1007/978-3-319-04543-6
   Google Scholar
• McNamara, J. H. (1967). Uncertainties in police work: The relevance of police recruits’ background and training. In D. Bordua (Ed.), The police: Six sociological essays (pp. 163-252). New York, NY: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Meeks, D. (2006). Police militarization in urban areas: The obscure war against the underclass. The Black Scholar, 35, 33-41.10.1080/00064246.2006.11413331
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muir, W. K., Jr. (1977). Police: Streetcorner politicians. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• New York Commission to Investigate Allegations of Police Corruption and the Anti-Corruption Procedures of the Police Department. (1994). Commission report. New York, NY: Mollen Commission.
   Google Scholar
• Niederhoffer, A. (1967). Behind the shield: The police in urban society. New York, NY: Doubleday.
   Google Scholar
• Paoline, E. A., III. (2001). Rethinking police culture: Officers’ occupational attitudes. New York, NY: LFB Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Paoline, E. A., III. (2003). Taking stock: Toward a richer understanding of police culture. Journal of Criminal Justice, 31, 199-214.10.1016/S0047-2352(03)00002-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paoline, E. A., III. (2004). Shedding light on police culture: An examination of officers’ occupational attitudes. Police Quarterly, 7, 205-236.10.1177/1098611103257074
   Google Scholar
• Paoline, E. A., III. (2006). The myth of a monolithic police culture. In R. Bohm & J. Walker (Eds.), Demystifying crime and criminal justice (pp. 81-88). Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury Publishing Company.
   Google Scholar
• Paoline, E. A., III. (2014). Police culture. In G. Bruinsma & D. Weisburd (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice (pp. 3577-3586). New York, NY: Springer.10.1007/978-1-4614-5690-2
   Google Scholar
• Paoline, E. A., III, & Terrill, W. (2005). The impact of police culture on traffic stop searches: An analysis of attitudes and behavior. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 28, 455-472.10.1108/13639510510614555
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paoline, E. A., III, & Terrill, W. (2014). Police culture: Adapting to the strains of the job. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.10.1007/978-1-4614-5690-2
   Google Scholar
• Paoline, E. A., III, Myers, S. M., & Worden, R. E. (2000). Police culture, individualism, and community policing: Evidence from two police departments. Justice Quarterly, 17, 575-605.10.1080/07418820000094671
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice. (1967). The challenge of crime in a free society. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.
   Google Scholar
• President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing. (2015). Final report of the president’s task force on 21st century policing. Washington, DC: Office of Community Oriented Policing Services.
   Google Scholar
• Rafky, D. M. (1975). Police cynicism reconsidered an application of smallest space analysis. Criminology, 13, 168-192.10.1111/crim.1975.13.issue-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Regoli, R. M. (1977). Police in America. Washington, DC: University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Regoli, R. M., & Poole, E. D. (1978). Specifying police cynicism. Journal of Police Science and Administration, 6, 98-104.
   Google Scholar
• Reiner, R. (1985). The politics of the police. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press.
   Google Scholar
• Reuss-Ianni, E. (1983). Two cultures of policing. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
   Google Scholar
• Rizzo, J. R., House, R. J., & Lirtzman, S. I. (1970). Role conflict and ambiguity in complex organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 15, 150-163.10.2307/2391486
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubinstein, J. (1973). City police. New York, NY: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux.
   Google Scholar
• Rumbaut, R. G., & Bittner, E. (1979). Changing conceptions of the police role: A sociological review. In N. Morris & M. Tonry (Eds.), Crime and justice: An annual review of research (pp. 239-288). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Russo, P. A., Engel, A. S., & Hatting, S. H. (1983). Police and occupational stress: An empirical investigation. In R. R. Bennett (Ed.), Police at work: Policy issues and analysis (pp. 89-106). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Shinn, M., Rosario, M., Mørch, H., & Chestnut, D. E. (1984). Coping with job stress and burnout in the human services. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 864.10.1037/0022-3514.46.4.864
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silverman, E. B. (1999). NYPD battles crime: Innovative strategies in policing. Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Sklansky, D. A. (2006). Not your father’s police department: Making sense of the new demographics of law enforcement. The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology (1973-), 96, 1209–1243.
   Google Scholar
• Skogan, W. G., & Hartnett, S. M. (1997). Community policing, Chicago style. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Skolnick, J. H. (1966). Justice without trial: Law enforcement in democratic society. New York, NY: John Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Skolnick, J. H., & Fyfe, J. J. (1993). Above the law: Police and the excessive use of force (3d ed.). New York, NY: The Free Press.
   Google Scholar
• Sobol, J. J. (2010). Social ecology and police discretion: The influence of district crime, cynicism and workload on the vigor of police response. Journal of Criminal Justice, 38, 481-488.10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2010.04.017
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sobol, J. J. (2010). The social ecology of police attitudes. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management, 33, 253-269.10.1108/13639511011044876
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sparrow, M. K., Moore, M. H., & Kennedy, D. M. (1990). Beyond 911: A new era for policing. New York, NY: Basic Books.
   Google Scholar
• Stratton, J. (1978, April). Police stress: An overview. Police Chief, pp. 58-62.
   Google Scholar
• Sun, I. Y. (2002). Police officer attitudes toward peers, supervisors, and citizens: A comparison between field training officers and regular officers. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 27, 69-83.10.1007/BF02898971
   Google Scholar
• Sun, I. Y. (2003). Police officers’ attitudes toward their role and work: A comparison of black and white officers. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 28, 90-108.
   Google Scholar
• Tauber, R. K. (1970). Dangers and the police. In N. Johnston, L. Savitz, & M. Wolfgang (Eds.), The sociology of punishment and correction (pp. 95-104). New York, NY: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Telep, C. W. (2011). The impact of higher education on police officer attitudes toward abuse of authority. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 22, 392-419.10.1080/10511253.2010.519893
   Google Scholar
• Terrill, W., Paoline, E. A., III, & Manning, P. K. (2003). Police culture and coercion. Criminology, 41, 1003-1034.10.1111/crim.2003.41.issue-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Territo, L., & Vetter, H. (1981). Stress and police personnel. Journal of Police Science and Administration, 9, 195-207.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toch, H. H. (1973). Psychological consequences of the police role. In E. Eldefonso (Ed.), Readings in criminal justice (pp. 85-92). New York, NY: Glencoe Press.
   Google Scholar
• Van Maanen, J. (1974). Working the street: A developmental view of police behavior. In H. Jacob (Ed.), The potential for reform of criminal justice (pp. 83-128). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Van Maanen, J. (1978). The asshole. In P. K. Manning & J. Van Maanen (Eds.), Policing: A view from the street (pp. 221-238). Santa Monica, CA: Goodyear Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Violanti, J. (1985). The police stress process. Journal of Police Science and Administration, 13, 106-110.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker, S. (1977). A critical history of police reform: The emergence of professionalism. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
   Google Scholar
• Walker, S. (2001). Police accountability: The role of citizen oversight. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
   Google Scholar
• Wambaugh, J. (1975). The choirboys. New York, NY: Dell Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Weisburd, D., Greenspan, R., Hamilton, E. E., Williams, H., & Bryant, K. A. (2000). Police attitudes toward abuse of authority: Findings from a national study. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice Research in Brief.
   Google Scholar
• Westley, W. A. (1970). Violence and the police: A sociological study of law, custom, and morality. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• White, S. O. (1972). A perspective on police professionalization. Law & Society Review, 7, 61-85.10.2307/3052829
   Google Scholar
• Wilson, J. Q. (1968). Varieties of police behavior: The management of law and order in eight communities. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Woody, R. H. (2005). The police culture: Research implications for psychological services. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 36, 525-529.10.1037/0735-7028.36.5.525
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Worden, R. E. (1990). A badge and a baccalaureate: Policies, hypotheses, and further evidence. Justice Quarterly, 7, 565-592.10.1080/07418829000090731
   Google Scholar
• Worden, R. E. (1995). Police officers’ belief systems: A framework for analysis. American Journal of Police, 14, 49-81.10.1108/07358549510152979
   Google Scholar
• Zhao, J., Thurman, Q. C., & He, N. (1999). Sources of job satisfaction among police officers: A test of demographic and work environment models. Justice Quarterly, 16, 153-173.10.1080/07418829900094091
   Google Scholar