1,361
Views
18
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

Examining the Impact of Ecological Contexts on Gender Disparity in Federal Sentencing

References

  • Albonetti, C. A. (1991). An integration of theories to explain judicial discretion. Social Problems, 38, 247-266.10.2307/800532
  • Albonetti, C. A. (1997). Sentencing under the federal sentencing guidelines: Effects of offender characteristics, guilty pleas, and departures on sentence outcomes for drug offenses, 1991–1992. Law and Society Review, 31, 789-822.10.2307/3053987
  • Albonetti, C. A. (2002). Joint conditioning effect of defendant’s gender and ethnicity on length of imprisonment under the federal sentencing guidelines for drug trafficking/manufacturing offenders. The Journal of Gender, Race, and Justice, 6, 39-60.
  • Alexander, M. (2012). The new Jim Crow: Mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness. New York, NY: The New Press.
  • American Statistical Association of Religious Bodies. (2002). Religious congregations and membership in the United States 2000 [CD-ROM]. Nashville, TN: Glenmary Research Center.
  • Anderson, E. A. (1976). The chivalrous treatment of the female offender in the arms of the criminal justice system: A review of the literature. Social Problems, 23, 350-357.10.2307/799780
  • Bartkowski, J. P. (1997). Debating patriarchy: Discursive disputes over spousal authority among evangelical family commentators. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 31, 15-31.
  • Baumer, E. P., & Martin, K. H. (2013). Social organization, collective sentiment, and legal sanctions in murder cases. American Journal of Sociology, 119, 131-182.10.1086/672082
  • Beckett, K. (1997). Making crime pay: Law and order in contemporary American politics. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
  • Belenko, S., & Spohn, C. (2014). Drugs, crime, and justice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  • Belknap, J. (2001). The invisible woman: Gender, crime and justice (2nd ed.). Boulder, CO: University of Colorado Press.
  • Bickle, G. S., & Peterson, R. D. (1991). The impact of gender-based family roles on criminal sentencing. Social Problems, 38, 372-394.10.2307/800605
  • Blanchard, D. A., & Prewitt, T. J. (1993). Religious violence and abortion: The Gideon Project. Gainesville: University of Florida Press.
  • Blumstein, A., Cohen, J., Martin, S. E., & Tonry, M. H. (1983). Research on sentencing: The search for reform, Vol. 1. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
  • Bontrager, S., Barrick, K., & Stupi, E. (2013). Gender and sentencing: A meta-analysis of contemporary research. Journal of Gender, Race and Justice, 16, 349-372.
  • Brennan, P. K. (2006). Sentencing female misdemeanants: An examination of the direct and indirect effects of race/ethnicity. Justice Quarterly, 23, 60-95.10.1080/07418820600552477
  • Britt, C. L. (2000). Social context and racial disparities in punishment decisions. Justice Quarterly, 17, 707-732.10.1080/07418820000094731
  • Brubaker, S. J., & Fox, K. C. (2010). Urban African American girls at risk: An exploratory study of service needs and provision. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 8, 250-265.10.1177/1541204010376319
  • Bushway, S., & Piehl, A. (2001). Judging judicial discretion: Legal factors and racial discrimination in sentencing. Law & Society Review, 35, 733-764.10.2307/3185415
  • Bushway, S., & Piehl, A. (2007). Social science research and the legal threat to presumptive sentencing guidelines. Criminology and Public Policy, 6, 461-482.10.1111/cpp.2007.6.issue-3
  • Caravelis, C., Chiricos, T., & Bales, W. (2011). Static and dynamic indicators of minority threat in sentencing outcomes: A multi-level analysis. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 27, 405-425.10.1007/s10940-011-9130-1
  • Chambliss, W. J. (1964). A sociological analysis of the law of vagrancy. Social Problems, 12, 67-77.10.2307/798699
  • Chambliss, W. J. (1994). Policing the Ghetto underclass: The politics of law and law enforcement. Social Problems, 41, 177-198.10.2307/3096929
  • Chesney-Lind, M. (2002). Criminalizing victimization: The Unintended Consequences of pro-arrest policies for girls and women. Criminology & Public Policy, 2, 81-90.10.1111/cpp.2002.2.issue-1
  • Chesney-Lind, M., & Pollock, J. M. (1995). Women’s prisons: Equality with a vengeance. In A. V. Merlo & J. M. Pollock (Eds.), Women, law, and social control (pp. 155-175). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
  • Coltrane, S., & Messineo, M. (2000). The perpetuation of subtle prejudice: Race, and gender imagery in 1990s television advertising. Sex Roles, 42, 363-389.10.1023/A:1007046204478
  • Crawford, C. (2000). Gender, race, and habitual offender sentencing in Florida. Criminology, 38, 263-280.10.1111/crim.2000.38.issue-1
  • Crenshaw, K. W. (2012). From private violence to mass incarceration: Thinking intersectionally about women, race, and social control. UCLA Law Review, 59, 1418-1472.
  • Crow, M. S., & Kunselman, J. C. (2009). Sentencing female drug offenders: Reexamining racial and ethnic disparities. Women & Criminal Justice, 19, 191-216.10.1080/08974450903001511
  • Curran, D. (1983). Judicial discretion and defendant’s sex. Criminology, 21, 41-58.10.1111/j.1745-9125.1983.tb00250.x
  • Daly, K. (1987a). Structure and practice of familial-based justice in a criminal court. Law and Society Review, 21, 267-290.10.2307/3053522
  • Daly, K. (1987b). Discrimination in the criminal courts: Family, gender, and the problem of equal treatment. Social Forces, 66, 152-175.10.1093/sf/66.1.152
  • Daly, K. (1989). Rethinking judicial paternalism: Gender, work family relations, and sentencing. Gender & Society, 3, 9-36.10.1177/089124389003001002
  • Daly, K., & Bordt, R. L. (1995). Sex effects and sentencing: An analysis of the statistical literature. Justice Quarterly, 12, 141-175.10.1080/07418829500092601
  • Daly, K., & Tonry, M. (1997). Gender, race, and sentencing. In M. Tonry (Ed.), Crime and justice: A review of research, Vol. 22 (pp. 201-252). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
  • Doerner, J. K. (2012). Gender disparities in sentencing departures: An examination of U.S. federal courts. Women & Criminal Justice, 22, 176-205.10.1080/08974454.2012.687953
  • Doerner, J., & Demuth, S. (2010). The independent and joint effects of race/ethnicity, gender, and age on sentencing outcomes in U.S. Federal courts. Justice Quarterly, 27, 1-27.
  • Doerner, J., & Demuth, S. (2014). Gender and sentencing in the federal courts: Are women treated more leniently? Criminal Justice Policy Review, 25, 242-269.10.1177/0887403412466877
  • Durkheim, É. (1966). The Division of Labor in Society. New York, NY: Free Press.
  • Eisenstein, J., Flemming, R. B., & Nardulli, P. (1988). The contours of justice: Communities and their courts. Boston, MA: Little, Brown.
  • Eisenstein, J., & Jacob, H. (1977). Felony justice: An organizational analysis of criminal courts. Boston, MA: Little, Brown.
  • Engen, R. L., & Gainey, R. R. (2000a). Modeling the effects of legally relevant and extralegal factors under sentencing guidelines: The rules have changed. Criminology, 38, 1207-1230.10.1111/crim.2000.38.issue-4
  • Engen, R. L., & Gainey, R. R. (2000b). Conceptualizing legally relevant factors under guidelines: A reply to Ulmer. Criminology, 38, 1245-1252.10.1111/crim.2000.38.issue-4
  • Epstein, E., & Martin, A. D. (2010). Does public opinion influence the Supreme Court? Possibly yes (but we’re not sure why). Pennsylvania Journal of Constitutional Law, 13, 263-282.
  • Farnworth, M., & Horan, P. (1980). Separate justice: An analysis of race differences in court processes. Social Science Research, 9, 381-399.10.1016/S0049-089X(80)80004-4
  • Farnworth, M., & Teske, R., Jr (1995). Gender differences in felony court processing: Three hypotheses of disparity. Women & Crime Justice, 6, 23-44.10.1300/J012v06n02_02
  • Farrell, A., Ward, G., & Rousseau, D. (2009). Race effects of representation among federal court workers: Does black workforce representation reduce sentencing disparities? The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 623, 121-133.10.1177/0002716208331128
  • Farrell, A., Ward, G., & Rousseau, D. (2010). Intersections of gender and race in federal sentencing: Examining court contexts and the effects of representative court authorities. Journal of Gender, Race, & Justice, 14, 85-126.
  • Fearn, N. E. (2005). A multilevel analysis of community effects on criminal sentencing. Justice Quarterly, 22, 452-487.10.1080/07418820500364668
  • Feldmeyer, B., & Ulmer, J. T. (2011). Racial/ethnic threat and federal sentencing. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 48, 238-270.10.1177/0022427810391538
  • Fischman, J. B., & Schanzenbach, M. M. (2011). Do standards of review matter? The case of federal criminal sentencing. The Journal of Empirical Legal Studies, 40, 405-437.10.1086/659262
  • Foucault, M. (1977). Discipline and punish: The births of the prison. London: Penguin.
  • Frankel, M. E. (1972). Lawlessness in sentencing. University of Cincinnati Law Review, 41, 1-54.
  • Freeborn, B. A., & Hartmann, M. E. (2010). Judicial discretion and sentencing behavior: Did the Feeney amendment rein in district judges? Journal of Empirical Legal Studies, 7, 355-378.10.1111/jels.2010.7.issue-2
  • Freiburger, T. L. (2010). The effects of gender, family status, and race on sentencing decisions. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 28, 378-395.
  • Freiburger, T. L. (2011). The impact of gender, offense type, and familial role on the decision to incarcerate. Social Justice Research, 24, 143-167.10.1007/s11211-011-0133-8
  • Freiburger, T. L., & Burke, A. S. (2011). Status offenders in the juvenile court: The 25 effects of gender, race, and ethnicity on the adjudication decision. Youth Violence & Juvenile Justice, 9, 352-365.10.1177/1541204011399933
  • Freiburger, T. L., & Sheeran, A. M. (2017). The joint effects of race, ethnicity, gender, and age on the incarceration and sentence length decisions. Race and Justice, 2153368717739676.
  • Garland, D. (2001). The culture of control: Crime and social order in contemporary society. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
  • Gaskins, S. (2004). “Women of circumstance” – The effects of mandatory minimum sentencing on women minimally involved in drug crimes. The American Criminal Law Review, 41, 1533-1553.
  • Giles, M. W., Blackstone, B., & Vinig, R. L., Jr (2008). The supreme court in American democracy: Unraveling the linkages between public opinion and judicial decision making. The Journal of Politics, 70, 293-306.10.1017/S0022381608080316
  • Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464-1480.10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1464
  • Griffin, T., & Wooldridge, J. (2006). Sex-Based disparities in felony dispositions before versus after sentencing reform in Ohio. Criminology, 44, 893-923.10.1111/crim.2006.44.issue-4
  • Healey, J. F. (1997). Race, ethnicity, and gender in the United States: Inequality, group conflict, and power. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.
  • Helms, R. (2009). Modeling the politics of punishment: A conceptual and empirical analysis of ‘law in action’in criminal sentencing. Journal of Criminal Justice, 37, 10-20.10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2008.12.004
  • Helms, R., & Jacobs, D. (2002). The political context of sentencing: An analysis of community and individual determinants. Social Forces, 81, 577-604.10.1353/sof.2003.0012
  • Herzog, S., & Oreg, S. (2008). Chivalry and the moderating effect of ambivalent sexism: Individual differences in crime seriousness judgements. Law & Society Review, 42, 45-74.10.1111/lasr.2008.42.issue-1
  • Hester, R., & Hartman, T. K. (2017). Conditional race disparities in criminal sentencing: A test of the liberation hypothesis. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 33, 77-100.10.1007/s10940-016-9283-z
  • Hill-Collins, P. (2000). Black feminist thought: Knowledge, consciousness and the politics of empowerment. New York, NY: Routledge.
  • Jacobs, D., & Carmichael, J. T. (2001). The politics of punishment across time and space: A pooled time-series analysis of imprisonment rates. Social Forces, 80, 61-89.10.1353/sof.2001.0070
  • Jacobs, D., & Carmichael, J. T. (2004). Ideology, social threat, and the death sentence: Capital sentences across time and space. Social Forces, 83(1), 249-278.10.1353/sof.2004.0115
  • Jacobs, D., & Helms, R. E. (1996). Toward a political model of incarceration: A time-series examination of multiple explanations for prison admission rates. American Journal of Sociology, 102, 323-357.10.1086/230949
  • Jeffries, S., & Bond, C. E. W. (2013). Gender, indigeneity, and the criminal courts: A narrative exploration of women’s sentencing in Western Australia. Women & Criminal Justice, 23, 19-42.10.1080/08974454.2013.743370
  • Johnson, B. D. (2006). The multilevel context of criminal sentencing: Integrating judge- and county-level influences. Criminology, 44, 259-298.10.1111/crim.2006.44.issue-2
  • Johnson, B. D. (2014). Judges on trial: A reexamination of judicial race and gender effects across modes of conviction. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 25, 159-184.10.1177/0887403412463933
  • Johnson, B. D., & Betsinger, S. (2009). Punishing the “model minority”: Asian-American criminal sentencing outcomes in federal district courts. Criminology, 47, 1045-1090.10.1111/(ISSN)1745-9125
  • Johnson, B. D., Ulmer, J. T., & Kramer, J. H. (2008). The social context of guidelines circumvention: The case of federal district courts. Criminology, 46, 737-783.10.1111/crim.2008.46.issue-3
  • Kautt, P. M. (2000). Separating and estimating the effects of the federal sentencing guidelines and the federal mandatory “Minimums”: Isolating the sources of racial disparity ( Dissertation), University of Nebraska.
  • Kautt, P. M. (2002). Location, location, location: Interdistrict and intercircuit variation in sentencing outcomes for federal drug-trafficking offenses. Justice Quarterly, 19, 633-671.10.1080/07418820200095381
  • Kautt, P. M., & Spohn, C. (2002). Crack-ing down on black drug offenders? Testing for interactions between offender race, drug type, and sentencing strategy in federal drug sentences. Justice Quarterly, 19, 1-36.10.1080/07418820200095151
  • Kim, B., Spohn, C., & Hedberg, E. C. (2015). Federal sentencing as a complex collaborative process: Judges, prosecutors, judge-prosecutor dyads, and disparity in sentencing. Criminology, 53, 597-623.10.1111/1745-9125.12090
  • Kim, B., Cano, M., Kim, K., & Spohn, C. (2016). The impact of United States v. Booker and Gall/Kimbrough v. United States on sentencing severity: Assessing social context and judicial discretion. Crime & Delinquency, 62, 1072-1094.10.1177/0011128714551783
  • King, R. D. (2008). Conservatism, institutionalism, and the social control of intergroup conflict. American Journal of Sociology, 113, 1351-1393.10.1086/525511
  • Klein, D. (1995). The etiology of female crime: A review of the literature. In B. R. Price & N. J. Sokoloff (2nd ed.), The criminal justice system and women offenders, victims, and workers (pp. 30-53). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
  • Koons-Witt, B. (2002). The effect of gender on the decision to incarcerate before and after the introduction of sentencing guidelines. Criminology, 40, 297-328.10.1111/crim.2002.40.issue-2
  • Koons-Witt, B. A., Sevigny, E. L., Burrow, J. D., & Hester, R. (2014). Gender and sentencing in South Carolina: Examining the interactions with race, age, and offense type. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 25, 299-324.10.1177/0887403412468884
  • Kramer, J. H., & Ulmer, J. T. (2009). Sentencing guidelines: Lessons from Philadelphia. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.
  • Kruttschnitt, C. (1982). Women, crime, and dependency an application of the theory of law. Criminology, 19, 495-513.10.1111/crim.1982.19.issue-4
  • Kruttschnitt, C., & Green, D. (1984). The sex-sanctioning issue: Is it history? American Sociological Review, 49, 541-551.10.2307/2095467
  • Leiber, M., & Mack, K. Y. (2003). The individual and joint effects of race, gender, and family status on juvenile justice decisions. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 40, 34-70.10.1177/0022427802239253
  • Lenox, M. L. (2011). Neutralizing the gendered collateral consequences of the war on drugs. New York University Law Review, 86, 280-315.
  • Levin, M. A. (1972). Urban politics and judicial behavior. The Journal of Legal Studies, 1, 193-221.10.1086/467482
  • Lipsitz, G. (2012). In an avalanche every snowflake pleads not guilty: The collateral consequences of mass incarceration and impediments to women’s fair housing rights. UCLA Law Review, 59, 1746-1809.
  • Logue, M. A. (2011). Downward departures in US federal courts: Do family ties, sex, and race/ethnicity matter? Ethnic and Racial Studies, 34, 683-706.10.1080/01419870.2010.487568
  • Mauer, M. (2013). The changing racial dynamics of women’s incarceration. Washington, DC: Sentencing Project.
  • Mishler, W., & Sheehan, R. S. (1993). The supreme court as a countermajoritarian institution? The impact of public opinion on supreme court decisions. American Political Science Review, 87, 87-101.10.2307/2938958
  • Moore, L. D., & Padavic, I. (2011). Risk assessment tools and racial/ethnic disparities in the juvenile justice system. Sociology Compass, 5, 850-858. Morris, 201610.1111/soco.2011.5.issue-10
  • Nagel, I. H., & Hagan, J. (1983). Gender and crime: Offense patterns and criminal court sanctions. Crime and Justice, 4, 91-144.10.1086/449087
  • Nanda, J. (2012). Blind discretion. UCLA Law Review, 59, 1502-1539.
  • Norphoth, H., Segal, J. A., Mishler, W., & Sheehan, R. S. (1994). Popular influence on supreme court decisions. American Political Science Review, 88, 711-724.10.2307/2944805
  • Nutting, A. (2013). The Booker decision and discrimination in federal criminal sentences. Economic Inquiry, 51, 637-652.10.1111/ecin.2013.51.issue-1
  • Oleson, J. C., Lowenkamp, C. T., Cadigan, T. P., VanNostrand, M., & Wooldredge, J. (2016). The effect of pretrial detention on sentencing in two federal districts. Justice Quarterly, 33, 1103-1122.10.1080/07418825.2014.959035
  • Paternoster, R. (2011). Racial disparity under the federal sentencing guidelines pre- and post-Booker. Criminology & Public Policy, 10, 1063-1072.10.1111/capp.2011.10.issue-4
  • Paternoster, R., Brame, R., Mazerolle, P., & Piquero, A. (1998). Using the correct statistical test for the equality of regression coefficients. Criminology, 36, 859-866.10.1111/crim.1998.36.issue-4
  • Peterson, R. D., Krivo, L. J., & Hagan, J. (2006). The many colors of crime: Inequalities of race, ethnicity, and crime in America. New York, NY: New York University Press.
  • Portillos, E. L. (1998). Latinos, gangs, and drugs. In C. R. Mann & M. S. Zatz (Eds.), Images of color, images of crime (pp. 156-166). Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury.
  • Rache, C. (1975). The female offender as an object of criminological research. In A. Brodsky (Ed.), The female offender. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
  • Reaves, B. A. (2013). State Court Processing Statistics: Felony defendants in large urban counties, 2009. U. S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
  • Rehavi, M. M., & Starr, S. (2012). Racial disparity in federal criminal charging and its sentencing consequences. Working Paper no. 12-002. University of Michigan Law and Economics, Empirical Legal Studies Center, Ann Arbor, MI.
  • Richie, B. E. (2012). Arrested justice: Black women, violence, and America’s prison nation. New York, NY: New York University Press.
  • Roberts, D. E. (1997). Unshackling black motherhood. Michigan Law Review Association, 95, 938-964.10.2307/1290050
  • Rodriguez, S. F., Curry, T. R., & Lee, G. (2006). Gender differences in criminal sentencing: Do effects vary across violent, property, and drug offenses?* Social Science Quarterly, 87, 318-339.10.1111/ssqu.2006.87.issue-2
  • Rudman, L. A., & Glick, P. (2001). prescriptive gender stereotypes and backlash toward agentic women. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 743-762.10.1111/0022-4537.00239
  • Salcido, O., & Menjivar, C. (2012). Gendered Paths to legal citizenship: The case of Latin-American immigrants in Phoenix, Arizona. Law & Society Review, 46, 335-368.10.1111/lasr.2012.46.issue-2
  • Savelsberg, J. J. (1992). Law that does not fit society: Sentencing guidelines as a neoclassical reaction to the dilemmas of substantivized law. American Journal of Sociology, 97, 1346-1381.10.1086/229904
  • Savelsberg, J. J. (1994). Knowledge, domination, and criminal punishment. American Journal of Sociology, 99, 911-943.10.1086/230367
  • Schanzenbach, M. M. (2005). Racial and gender disparities in prison sentences: The effect of district-level judicial demographics. Journal of Empirical Legal Studies, 57, 57-92.10.1086/425597
  • Schanzenbach, M. M., & Tiller, E. H. (2007). Strategic judging under the US sentencing guidelines: Positive political theory and evidence. Journal of Law, Economics, & Organization, 23, 24-56.
  • Seitz, T. N. (2005). The wounds of savagery. Women & Criminal Justice, 16, 29-64.10.1300/J012v16n01_02
  • Sentencing Commission, U. S. (2010). Demographic differences in federal Sentencing practices: An update of the Booker report’s multivariate regression analysis. Washington, DC: United States Sentencing Commission.
  • Sevigny, E. L. (2009). Excessive uniformity in federal drug sentencing. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 25, 155-180.10.1007/s10940-009-9064-z
  • Smart, C. (1976). Women, Crime and Criminology. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
  • Spohn, C. (1999). Gender and sentencing of drug offenders: Is Chivalry dead? Criminal Justice Policy Review, 9, 365-399.10.1177/088740349900900305
  • Spohn, C., & Beichner, D. (2000). Is preferential treatment of female offenders a thing of the past? A multisite study of gender, race, and imprisonment. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 11, 149-184.10.1177/0887403400011002004
  • Spohn, C., & Fornango, R. (2009). U.S. attorneys and substantial assistance departures: Testing for interprosecutor disparity. Criminology, 47, 813-846.10.1111/crim.2009.47.issue-3
  • Starr, S. B., & Rehavi, M. M. (2013). Mandatory sentencing and racial disparity: Assessing the role of prosecutors and the effects of Booker. Yale Law Journal, 123, 2-48.
  • Steffenmeier, D., & Demuth, S. (2000). Ethnicity and sentencing outcomes in U.S. federal courts: Who is punished more harshly? American Sociological Review, 65, 705-729.10.2307/2657543
  • Steffensmeier, D., & Demuth, S. (2006). Does gender modify the effects of race-ethnicity on criminal sanctioning? Sentences for male and female white, black, and hispanic defendants. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 22, 241-261.10.1007/s10940-006-9010-2
  • Steffensmeier, D., & Painter-Davis, N. (2017). Focus on gender and race along with age. Handbook on Punishment Decisions: Locations of Disparity.
  • Steffensmeier, D., Kramer, J., & Streifel, C. (1993). Gender and imprisonment decisions. Criminology, 31, 411-446.10.1111/crim.1993.31.issue-3
  • Stith, K., & Cabranes, J. A. (1998). Fear of judging: Sentencing guidelines in the federal courts. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
  • Tillyer, R., & Hartley, R. D. (2016). The use and impact of fast-track departures: Exploring prosecutorial and judicial discretion in federal immigration cases. Crime & Delinquency, 62, 1624-1647.10.1177/0011128713505481
  • Tillyer, R., Hartley, R. D., & Ward, J. T. (2015). Differential treatment of female defendants: Does criminal history moderate the effects of gender on sentence length in federal narcotics cases? Criminal Justice and Behavior, 42, 703-721.10.1177/0093854814560624
  • Tonry, M. (1987). Prediction and classification: Legal and ethical issues. Crime and Justice, 367-413.10.1086/449140
  • Tonry, M. (1988). Structuring sentencing. Crime and Justice, 10, 267-337.10.1086/449148
  • Tonry, M. (1996). Sentencing matters. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
  • Ulmer, J. T. (1997). Social worlds of sentencing: Court communities under sentencing guidelines. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
  • Ulmer, J. T. (2012). Recent developments and new directions in sentencing research. Justice Quarterly, 29, 1-40.10.1080/07418825.2011.624115
  • Ulmer, J. T., & Johnson, B. D. (2004). Sentencing in context: A multilevel analysis. Criminology, 4, 137-178.10.1111/crim.2004.42.issue-1
  • Ulmer, J. T., Kurlychek, M. C., & Kramer, J. H. (2007). Prosecutorial discretion and the imposition of mandatory minimum sentences. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 44, 427-458.10.1177/0022427807305853
  • Ulmer, J. T., Bader, C., & Gault, M. (2008). Do moral communities play a role in criminal sentencing? Evidence from Pennsylvania. The Sociological Quarterly, 49, 737-768.10.1111/j.1533-8525.2008.00134.x
  • Ulmer, J. T., Eisenstein, J., & Johnson, B. D. (2010). Trial penalties in federal sentencing: Extra-guidelines factors and district variation. Justice Quarterly, 27, 560-592.10.1080/07418820902998063
  • Ulmer, J. T., Light, M. T., & Kramer, J. H. (2011a). The “liberation” of federal judges’ discretion in the wake of the Booker/Fanfan decision: Is there increased disparity and divergence between courts? Justice Quarterly, 28, 799-837.10.1080/07418825.2011.553726
  • Ulmer, J. T., Light, M. T., & Kramer, J. H. (2011b). Racial disparity in the wake of the Booker/Fanfan decision: An alternative analysis to the USSC’s 2010 report. Criminology & Public Policy, 10, 1077-1118.10.1111/capp.2011.10.issue-4
  • Ulmer, J. T., Painter-Davis, N., & Tinik, L. (2016). Disproportional imprisonment of black and hispanic males: Sentencing discretion, processing outcomes, and policy structures. Justice Quarterly, 33, 642-681.10.1080/07418825.2014.958186
  • U.S. Sentencing Commission. (2009). U.S. Sentencing Commission 2009 Annual Report. Retrieved from https://www.ussc.gov/about/annual-report/archive/annual-report-2009
  • Vieraitis, L. M., Britto, S., & Kovandzic, T. V. (2007). The impact of women’s status and gender inequality on female homicide victimization rates evidence from US counties. Feminist Criminology, 2, 57-73.10.1177/1557085106294187
  • Viglione, J., Hannon, L., & DeFina, R. (2011). The impact of light skin on prison time for black female offenders. Social Science Journal, 48, 250-258.10.1016/j.soscij.2010.08.003
  • Ward, J. T., Hartley, R. D., & Tillyer, R. (2016). Unpacking gender and racial/ethnic biases in the federal sentencing of drug offenders. Journal of Criminal Justice, 46, 196-206.10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2016.05.008
  • Wheeler, S., Weisburd, D., & Bode, N. (1982). Sentencing the white-collar offender: Rhetoric and reality. American Sociological Review, 47, 641-659.10.2307/2095164
  • Wilson, W. J. (1987). The truly disadvantaged: The inner city, the underclass, and public policy. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
  • Wooldredge, J. (2010). Judges’ unequal contributions to extra-legal disparities in imprisonment. Criminology, 48, 539-567.10.1111/crim.2010.48.issue-2
  • Wright, R. F. (2006). Federal or state? Sorting as a sentencing choice. Criminal Justice, 21, 16-21.
  • Wu, J., & Spohn, C. (2010). Interdistrict disparity in sentencing in three U.S. district courts. Crime & Delinquency, 56, 290-322.10.1177/0011128707309997

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.