References
- Adams, K. (1992). Adjusting to prison life. Crime and Justice, 16, 275–359. doi:https://doi.org/10.1086/449208
- Aday, R. H., Krabill, J. J., & Deaton-Owens, D. (2014). Religion in the lives of older women serving life in prison. Journal of Women & Aging, 26(3), 238–256. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/08952841.2014.888880
- Agnew, R. (1992). Foundation for a general strain theory of crime and delinquency. Criminology, 30(1), 47–88. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1992.tb01093.x
- Agnew, R. (2006). Pressured into crime: An overview of general strain theory. Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury Publishing Company.
- Allport, G. W., & Ross, J. M. (1967). Personal religious orientation and prejudice. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 5(4), 432–443. doi:https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.5.4.432
- Association of Religion Data Archives. (2015). South Africa. Retrieved from http://www.thearda.com/internationalData/countries/Country_207_2.asp
- Bandura, A. (2010). Self‐efficacy. In I. B. Weiner, & W. E. Craighead (Eds.), The Corsini encyclopedia of psychology (4th ed., pp. 1–3). Hoboken, NJ: John, Wiley & Sons.
- Baraldi, A. N., & Enders, C. K. (2010). An introduction to modern missing data analyses. Journal of School Psychology, 48(1), 5–37. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2009.10.001
- Batson, C. D., & Stocks, E. L. (2004). Religion: Its core psychological functions. In J. Greenberg, S. L. Koole & T. Pyszczynski (Eds.), Handbook of experimental existential psychology (pp. 141–155). New York: Guilford Press.
- Bernard, M., Strasser, F., Gamondi, C., Braunschweig, G., Forster, M., Kaspers-Elekes, K., … Magaya, N. K, … SMILE Consortium Team. (2017). Relationship between spirituality, meaning in life, psychological distress, wish for hastened death, and their influence on quality of life in palliative care patients. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 54(4), 514–522. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2017.07.019
- Blevins, K. R., Listwan, S. J., Cullen, F. T., & Jonson, C. L. (2010). A general strain theory of prison violence and misconduct: An integrated model of inmate behavior. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 26(2), 148–166. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986209359369
- Booyens, K. (2011). The South African criminal justice system. In C. Bezuidenhout (Ed.), A Southern African perspective on fundamental criminology (pp. 57–88). Pinelands, Cape Town, South Africa: Heinemann/Pearson Education South Africa.
- Clear, T. R., Hardyman, P. L., Stout, B., Lucken, K., & Dammer, H. R. (2000). The value of religion in prison an inmate perspective. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 16(1), 53–74. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986200016001004
- Clear, T. R., & Sumter, M. T. (2002). Prisoners, prison, and religion: Religion and adjustment to prison. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 35(3–4), 125–156. doi:https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v35n03_07
- Clemmer, D. (1958). The prison community. New York, NY: Rinehart & Company.
- Cochran, J. K., Wood, P. B., & Arneklev, B. J. (1994). Is the religiosity-delinquency relationship spurious - a test of arousal and social-control theories. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 31(1), 92–123. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427894031001004
- Cotton, S., Larkin, E., Hoopes, A., Cromer, B. A., & Rosenthal, S. L. (2005). The impact of adolescent spirituality on depressive symptoms and health risk behaviors. Journal of Adolescent Health, 36(6), 529. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2004.07.017
- Cullen, F. T. (2010). Toward a criminology of religion: Comment on Johnson and Jang. In R. Rosenfeld, K. Quinet & C. Garcia (Eds.), Contemporary issues in criminological theory and research: The role of social institutions (pp. 151–161). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
- Cullen, F. T., Sundt, J. L., & Wozniak, J. F. (2014). [(2001)]. The virtuous prison: Toward a restorative rehabilitation. In F. T. Cullen, C. L. Jonson & M. K. Stohr (Eds.), The American prison: Imagining a different future (pp. 61–84). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
- Dammer, H. R. (2002). The reasons for religious involvement in the correctional environment. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 35(3–4), 35–58. doi:https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v35n03_03
- Department of Correctional Services. (2005). White paper on corrections in South Africa. Pretoria, South Africa: Department of Correctional Services.
- Department of Correctional Services. (2018). Annual report 2017/18. (No. RP410/2018). Pretoria, South Africa: Department of Correctional Services.
- Desmond, S. A., Ulmer, J. T., & Bader, C. D. (2013). Religion, self control, and substance use. Deviant Behavior, 34(5), 384–406. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2012.726170
- Desmond, S. A., Soper, S. E., & Kraus, R. (2011). Religiosity, peers, and delinquency: Does religiosity reduce the effect of peers on delinquency? Sociological Spectrum, 31(6), 665–694. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/02732173.2011.606725
- Drakeford, L. (2019). Mental health and the role of religious context among inmates in state and federal prisons: Results from a multilevel analysis. Society and Mental Health, 9(1), 51–73. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/2156869318763248
- Du Preez, N. (2008). Spiritual care of women in South African prisons: Historical development and current situation. Studia Historiae Ecclesiasticae, 34, 191–209.
- Edwards, M. J., & Holden, R. R. (2001). Coping, meaning in life, and suicidal manifestations: Examining gender differences. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 57(12), 1517–1534. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.1114
- Ellis, L. (1987). Religiosity and criminality from the perspective of arousal theory. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 24(3), 215–232. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427887024003003
- Ellison, C. G. (1991). Religious involvement and subjective well-being. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 32(1), 80–99. doi:https://doi.org/10.2307/2136801
- Emmons, R. A., & Crumpler, C. A. (2000). Gratitude as a human strength: Appraising the evidence. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 19(1), 56–69. doi:https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2000.19.1.56
- Emmons, R. A., & McCullough, M. E. (2003). Counting blessings versus burdens: An experimental investigation of gratitude and subjective well-being in daily life. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 84(2), 377. doi:https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.84.2.377
- Emmons, R. A. (2005). Striving for the sacred: Personal goals, life meaning, and religion. Journal of Social Issues, 61(4), 731–745. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2005.00429.x
- Emmons, R. A., & Paloutzian, R. F. (2003). The psychology of religion. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 377–402. doi:https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145024
- Eytan, A. (2011). Religion and mental health during incarceration: A systematic literature review. Psychiatric Quarterly, 82(4), 287–295. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s11126-011-9170-6
- Frankl, V. E. (1984) [1946]. Man's search for meaning. New York, NY: Pocket Books.
- Frantz, M. J. (2017). Offender reintegration: A challenge to the uniting reformed church in SA, Porterville, in its ministry of reconciliation, restoration and healing to the released offender in the local community. (Unpublished MA thesis). University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch, South Africa.
- Froh, J. J., Sefick, W. J., & Emmons, R. A. (2008). Counting blessings in early adolescents: An experimental study of gratitude and subjective well-being. Journal of School Psychology, 46(2), 213–233. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2007.03.005
- Fry, P. S. (2000). Religious involvement, spirituality and personal meaning for life: Existential predictors of psychological wellbeing in community-residing and institutional care elders. Aging & Mental Health, 4(4), 375–387. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/713649965
- Fuchs, C. Z., & Rehm, L. P. (1977). A self-control behavior therapy program for depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 45(2), 206. doi:https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-006X.45.2.206
- Furrow, J. L., King, P. E., & White, K. (2004). Religion and positive youth development: Identity, meaning, and prosocial concerns. Applied Developmental Science, 8(1), 17–26. doi:https://doi.org/10.1207/S1532480XADS0801_3
- George, L. K., Ellison, C. G., & Larson, D. B. (2002). Explaining the relationships between religious involvement and health. Psychological Inquiry, 13(3), 190–200. doi:https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1303_04
- Giordano, P. C., Cernkovich, S. A., & Rudolph, J. L. (2002). Gender, crime, and desistance: Toward a theory of cognitive transformation. American Journal of Sociology, 107(4), 990–1064. doi:https://doi.org/10.1086/343191
- Goffman, E. (1961). On the characteristics of total institutions. Paper presented at the Symposium on Preventive and Social Psychiatry, 43–84.
- Goodstein, L., & Wright, K. N. (1989). Inmate adjustment to prison. In L. Goodstein, & D. L. MacKenzie (Eds.), The American prison: Issues in research and policy (pp. 229–251). Boston, MA: Springer.
- Gottfredson, M. R., & Hirschi, T. (1990). A general theory of crime. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
- Graham, J. W. (2009). Missing data analysis: Making it work in the real world. Annual Review of Psychology, 60(1), 549–576. doi:https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085530
- Grasmick, H. G., Tittle, C. R., Bursik, R. J., & Arneklev, B. J. (1993). Testing the core empirical implications of Gottfredson and Hirschi general theory of crime. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 30(1), 5–29. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427893030001002
- Hackney, C. H., & Sanders, G. S. (2003). Religiosity and mental health: A meta-analysis of recent studies. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 42(1), 43–55. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-5906.t01-1-00160
- Hallett, M., Hays, J., Johnson, B. R., Jang, S. J., & Duwe, G. (2017). The Angola prison seminary: Effects of faith-based ministry on identity transformation, desistance, and rehabilitation. New York, NY: Routledge.
- Hayward, R. D., & Krause, N. (2014). Religion, mental health, and well-being social aspects. In V. Saroglou (Ed.), Religion, personality, and social behavior (pp. 255–280). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
- Institute for Criminal Policy Research. (2019). World prison brief: South Africa. Retrieved from https://www.prisonstudies.org/country/south-africa
- Jang, S. J. (2016). Existential spirituality, religiosity, and symptoms of anxiety-related disorders: A study of belief in ultimate truth and meaning in life. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 44(3), 213–229. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/009164711604400304
- Jang, S. J., & Johnson, B. R. (2017). Religion, spirituality, and desistance from crime: Toward a theory of existential identity transformation. In A. Blokland, & V. van der Geest (Eds.), The Routledge international handbook of life-course criminology (pp. 74–86). New York, N.Y.: Routledge.
- Jang, S. J., & Johnson, B. R. (2004). Explaining religious effects on distress among African Americans. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 43(2), 239–260. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5906.2004.00230.x
- Jang, S. J., & Johnson, B. R. (2005). Gender, religiosity, and reactions to strain among African Americans. The Sociological Quarterly, 46(2), 323–357. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1533-8525.2005.00015.x
- Jang, S. J., Johnson, B. R., Hays, J., Hallett, M., & Duwe, G. (2018). Existential and virtuous effects of religiosity on mental health and aggressiveness among offenders. Religions, 9(6), 182. doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/rel9060182
- Jensen-Campbell, L. A., Knack, J. M., Waldrip, A. M., & Campbell, S. D. (2007). Do big five personality traits associated with self-control influence the regulation of anger and aggression? Journal of Research in Personality, 41(2), 403–424. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2006.05.001
- Johnson, B. R. (2011). More God, less crime: Why faith matters and how it could matter more. West Conshohocken, PA: Templeton Press.
- Johnson, B. R. (2014). The faith-based prison. In F. T. Cullen, C. L. Jonson & M. K. Stohr (Eds.), The American prison: Imagining a different future (pp. 35–60). Los Angeles, CA: Sage.
- Johnson, B. R., & Jang, S. J. (2010). Crime and religion: Assessing the role of the faith factor. In R. Rosenfeld, K. Quinet & C. Garcia (Eds.), Contemporary issues in criminological theory and research: The role of social institutions (pp. 117–149). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
- Kerley, K. R., Allison, M. C., & Graham, R. D. (2006). Investigating the impact of religiosity on emotional and behavioral coping in prison. Journal of Crime and Justice, 29(2), 69–93. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/0735648X.2006.9721649
- Kerley, K. R., Copes, H., Tewksbury, R., & Dabney, D. A. (2011). Examining the relationship between religiosity and self-control as predictors of prison deviance. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 55(8), 1251–1271. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X11387523
- Koenig, H. G. (1995). Religion and older men in prison. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 10(3), 219–230. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.930100308
- Koenig, H. G., King, D. G., & Carson, V. B. (2012). Handbook of religion and health (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
- Krause, N., Pargament, K. I., Hill, P. C., & Ironson, G. (2016). Humility, stressful life events, and psychological well-being: Findings from the landmark spirituality and health survey. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 11(5), 499–510. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2015.1127991
- Krause, N. (2018). Assessing the relationships among religion, humility, forgiveness, and self-rated health. Research in Human Development, 15(1), 33–49. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/15427609.2017.1411720
- Krause, N., Ingersoll-Dayton, B., Liang, J., & Sugisawa, H. (1999). Religion, social support, and health among the Japanese elderly. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 40(4), 405–421. doi:https://doi.org/10.2307/2676333
- Levin, J. (2010). Religion and mental health: Theory and research. International Journal of Applied Psychoanalytic Studies, 7(2), 102–115. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/aps.240
- Lonczak, H. S., Clifasefi, S. L., Marlatt, G. A., Blume, A. W., & Donovan, D. M. (2006). Religious coping and psychological functioning in a correctional population. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 9(02), 171–192. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/13694670500145713
- Mandhouj, O., Aubin, H., Amirouche, A., Perroud, N. A., & Huguelet, P. (2014). Spirituality and religion among French prisoners: An effective coping resource? International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 58(7), 821–834. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X13491715
- Martos, T., Thege, B. K., & Steger, M. F. (2010). It's not only what you hold, it's how you hold it: Dimensions of religiosity and meaning in life. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(8), 863–868. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.07.017
- Maruna, S., Wilson, L., & Curran, K. (2006). Why god is often found behind bars: Prison conversions and the crisis of self-narrative. Research in Human Development, 3(2), 161–184.
- McCullough, M. E. (2000). Forgiveness as human strength: Theory, measurement, and links to well-being. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 19(1), 43–55. doi:https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2000.19.1.43
- McCullough, M. E., Emmons, R. A., & Tsang, J. (2002). The grateful disposition: A conceptual and empirical topography. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(1), 112. doi:https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.82.1.112
- McCullough, M. E., & Willoughby, B. L. B. (2009). Religion, self-regulation, and self-control: Associations, explanations, and implications. Psychological Bulletin, 135(1), 69–93. doi:https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014213
- McKnight, P. E., & Kashdan, T. B. (2009). Purpose in life as a system that creates and sustains health and well-being: An integrative, testable theory. Review of General Psychology, 13(3), 242–251. doi:https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017152
- Mirowsky, J., & Ross, C. E. (1995). Sex-differences in distress - real or artifact. American Sociological Review, 60(3), 449–468. doi:https://doi.org/10.2307/2096424
- Mirowsky, J., & Ross, C. E. (2003). Social causes of psychological distress. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine De Gruyter.
- Mkhathini, M. M. (2016). A critical analysis of the chaplaincy in the South African department of correctional services after 1994. (Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation). University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa.
- Moreira-Almeida, A., Neto, F. L., & Koenig, H. G. (2006). Religiousness and mental health: A review. Revista Brasileira De Psiquiatria (Sao Paulo, Brazil: 1999), 28(3), 242–250. doi:https://doi.org/10.1590/s1516-44462006000300018
- Muthén, B. O. (1983). Latent variable structural equation modeling with categorical-data. Journal of Econometrics, 22(1–2), 43–65. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4076(83)90093-3
- Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2017). Mplus user's guide (8th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.
- O'Connor, T. P., & Perreyclear, M. (2002). Prison religion in action and its influence on offender rehabilitation. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 35(3), 11–33. doi:https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v35n03_02
- O'Connor, T. P., & Duncan, J. B. (2011). The sociology of humanist, spiritual, and religious practice in prison: Supporting responsivity and desistance from crime. Religions, 2(4), 590–610. doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/rel2040590
- Pargament, K. I., Ensing, D. S., Falgout, K., Olsen, H., Reilly, B., Van Haitsma, K., & Warren, R. (1990). God help me:(I): Religious coping efforts as predictors of the outcomes to significant negative life events. American Journal of Community Psychology, 18(6), 793–824. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00938065
- Paternoster, R., & Bushway, S. D. (2009). Desistance and the “feared self”: Toward an identity theory of criminal desistance. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 99(4), 1103–1156.
- Pew Research Center. (2019). A closer look at how religious restrictions have risen around the world. Retrieved from https://www.pewforum.org/2019/07/15/a-closer-look-at-how-religious-restrictions-have-risen-around-the-world/
- Pirutinsky, S. (2014). Does religiousness increase self-control and reduce criminal behavior? Criminal Justice and Behavior, 41(11), 1290–1307. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854814531962
- Porporino, F. J., & Zamble, E. (1984). Coping with imprisonment. Canadian Journal of Criminology, 26, 403–421.
- Randall, G. K., & Bishop, A. J. (2013). Direct and indirect effects of religiosity on valuation of life through forgiveness and social provisions among older incarcerated males. The Gerontologist, 53(1), 51–59. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gns070
- Reisig, M. D., Wolfe, S. E., & Pratt, T. C. (2012). Low self-control and the religiosity-crime relationship. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 39(9), 1172–1191. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854812442916
- Roberts, R. C. (2004). The blessings of gratitude: A conceptual analysis. In R. A. Emmons, & M. E. McCullough (Eds.), The Psychology of Gratitude (pp. 58–78). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
- Rye, M. S., Pargament, K. I., Ali, M. A., Beck, G. L., Dorff, E. N., Hallisey, C., … Williams, J. G. (2000). Religious perspectives on forgiveness. In M. E. McCullough, K. I. Pargament & C. E. Thoresen (Eds.), Forgiveness: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 17–40). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
- Sawatzky, R., Ratner, P. A., & Chiu, L. (2005). A meta-analysis of the relationship between spirituality and quality of life. Social Indicators Research, 72(2), 153–188. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-004-5577-x
- Sherkat, D. E., & Ellison, C. G. (1999). Recent developments and current controversies in the sociology of religion. Annual Review of Sociology, 25(1), 363–394. doi:https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.25.1.363
- Smith, C. (2003a). Moral, believing animals: Human personhood and culture. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
- Smith, C. (2003b). Theorizing religious effects among American adolescents. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 42(1), 17–30. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-5906.t01-1-00158
- Statistics South Africa. (2004). Census 2001: Primary tables South Africa: Census ’96 and 2001 compared. (No. 03-02-04 (2001)). Pretoria, South Africa: Statistics South Africa.
- Steger, M. F., & Frazier, P. (2005). Meaning in life: One link in the chain from religiousness to well-being. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52(4), 574. doi:https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.52.4.574
- Steger, M. F., Frazier, P., Oishi, S., & Kaler, M. (2006). The meaning in life questionnaire: Assessing the presence of and search for meaning in life. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 53(1), 80. doi:https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.53.1.80
- Sykes, G. M. (2007) [1958]. The society of captives: A study of a maximum security prison. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
- Tewksbury, R., Connor, D. P., & Denney, A. S. (2014). Disciplinary infractions behind bars an exploration of importation and deprivation theories. Criminal Justice Review, 39(2), 201–218. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0734016814529965
- Torrey, E. F., Kennard, A. D., Eslinger, D., Lamb, R., & Pavle, J. (2010). More mentally ill persons are in jails and prisons than hospitals: A survey of the states. Arlington, VA: Treatment Advocacy Center.
- United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2015). The United Nations standard minimum rules for the treatment of prisoners (the Nelson Mandela rules). Vienna, Austria: Vienna International Centre.
- Vanhooren, S., Leijssen, M., & Dezutter, J. (2017). Loss of meaning as a predictor of distress in prison. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 61(13), 1411–1432. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X15621984
- Wang, Z., Koenig, H. G., Ma, H., & Shohaib, S. A. (2016). Religion, purpose in life, social support, and psychological distress in Chinese university students. Journal of Religion and Health, 55(3), 1055–1064. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-016-0184-0
- Welch, M. R., Tittle, C. R., & Grasmick, H. G. (2006). Christian religiosity, self-control and social conformity. Social Forces, 84(3), 1605–1623. doi:https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2006.0075
- Wilkowski, B. M., Robinson, M. D., & Troop-Gordon, W. (2010). How does cognitive control reduce anger and aggression? The role of conflict monitoring and forgiveness processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(5), 830. doi:https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018962
- Zamble, E., & Porporino, F. J. (2013) [1988]. Coping, behavior, and adaptation in prison inmates. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.