The Whole Is Greater than the Sum of Its Parts: Risk and Protective Profiles for Vulnerability to Radicalization

References

• Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting. Social Behaviour, Hoboken, NJ : Prentice-Hall.
   Google Scholar
• Banaji, M. R., & Heiphetz, L. (2010). Attitudes. In S. T. Fiske, D. T. Gilbert, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of Social Psychology (pp. 353–393). Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Bhui, K. S., Hicks, M. H., Lashley, M., & Jones, E. (2012). A public health approach to understanding and preventing violent radicalization. BMC Medicine, 10(1), 16.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bouhana, N, & Wikström, P-OH. (2011). Al Qai’da-Influenced Radicalisation: A Rapid Evidence Assessment Guided by Situational Action Theory. Home Office.
   Google Scholar
• Bouhana, N. (2019). The moral ecology of extremism a systemic perspective. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/834354/Bouhana-The-moral-ecology-of-extremism.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Bouhana, N., & Schumann, S. (2022). Are conceptual frameworks of radicalisation leading to involvement in terrorism ‘observable’? https://crestresearch.ac.uk/resources/are-conceptual-frameworks-of-radicalisation-leading-to-involvement-in-terrorism-observable/
   Google Scholar
• Bouhana, N., Corner, E., & Gill, P. (2022). A risk analysis framework of lone-actor terrorism. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Clemmow, C., Bouhana, N., & Gill, P. (2020). Analyzing person-exposure patterns in lone-actor terrorism: Implications for threat assessment and intelligence gathering. Criminology & Public Policy, 19(2), 451–482. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12466
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clemmow, C., Bouhana, N., Marchment, Z., & Gill, P. (2022). Vulnerability to radicalisation in a general population: A psychometric network approach. Psychology, Crime & Law, 1–29. https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316X.2022.2027944
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clemmow, C., Gill, P., Bouhana, N., Silver, J., & Horgan, J. (2022). Disaggregating lone-actor grievance-fuelled violence: Comparing lone-actor terrorists and mass murderers. Terrorism and Political Violence, 34(3), 558–584. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2020.1718661
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corner, E., Bouhana, N., & Gill, P. (2019). The multifinality of vulnerability indicators in lone-actor terrorism. Psychology, Crime & Law, 25(2), 111–132. https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316X.2018.1503664
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Department of Homeland Security. (2021). Center for prevention programs and partnerships. Retrieved May 16, 2021, from https://www.dhs.gov/CP3
   Google Scholar
• Fox, B., & Escue, M. (2022). Evaluating and comparing profiles of burglaries developed using three statistical classification techniques: Cluster analysis, multidimensional scaling, and latent class analysis. Psychology, Crime & Law, 28(1), 34–58. https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316X.2021.1880582
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerstenfeld, P. B., Grant, D. R., & Chiang, C. (2003). Hate online: A content analysis of extremist Internet sites. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 3(1), 29–44. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-2415.2003.00013.x
   Google Scholar
• Gill, P., Farnham, F., & Clemmow, C. (2021). The equifinality and multifinality of violent radicalization and mental health. In K. Bhui & D. Bhugra (Eds.), Terrorism, violent radicalization, and mental health (pp. 125–136). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198845706.003.0010
   Google Scholar
• Gill, P., Horgan, J., & Deckert, P. (2014). Bombing alone: Tracing the motivations and antecedent behaviors of lone-actor terrorists. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 59(2), 425–435. https://doi.org/10.1111/1556-4029.12312
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gomes, H. S., Farrington, D. P., Maia, Â., & Krohn, M. D. (2019). Measurement bias in self-reports of offending: A systematic review of experiments. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 15(3), 313–339. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-019-09379-w
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hart, S. D., Douglas, K. S., & Guy, L. S. (2016). The structured professional judgement approach to violence risk assessment: Origins, nature, and advances. In L. Craig & M. Rettenberger (Volume Eds.) and D. Boer (Series Ed.), The Wiley handbook on the theories, assessment, treatment of sexual offending (Vol. 2, pp. 643–666). New Jersey: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Home Office. (2018). Counter‐terrorism Strategy (CONTEST) 2018. https://assets.publishing.service. gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/97995/strategy-contest.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Horgan, J. (2008). From profiles to pathways and roots to routes: Perspectives from psychology on radicalization into terrorism. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 618(1), 80–94. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716208317539
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jensen, M. A., Safer‐Lichtenstein, A., James, P. A., & LaFree, G. (2020). The link between prior criminal record and violent political extremism in the united. In D. Weisburd, E. Savona, B. Hasisi, & F. Calderoni (Eds.), Understanding recruitment to organized crime and terrorism. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-36639-1_6
   Google Scholar
• Keipi, T., Oksanen, A., Hawdon, J., Näsi, M., & Räsänen, P. (2017). Harm-advocating online content and subjective well-being: A cross-national study of new risks faced by youth. Journal of Risk Research, 20(5), 634–649.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kruglanski, A. W., Jasko, K., Chernikova, M., Dugas, M., & Webber, D. (2018). To the fringe and back: Violent extremism and the psychology of deviance. In The motivated mind (pp. 344–366). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• LaFree, G., & Dugan, L. (2004). How does studying terrorism compare to studying crime. Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism: Criminological Perspectives, 5, 53–74.
   Google Scholar
• Ljujic, V., van Prooijen, J. W., & Weerman, F. (2017). Beyond the crime-terror nexus: Socio-economic status, violent crimes and terrorism. Journal of Criminological Research, Policy and Practice, 3(3), 158–172. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCRPP-02-2017-0010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Logan, C., & Lloyd, M. (2019). Violent extremism: A comparison of approaches to assessing and managing risk. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 24(1), 141–161. https://doi.org/10.1111/lcrp.12140
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lösel, F., King, S., Bender, D., & Jugl, I. (2018). Protective factors against extremism and violent radicalization: A systematic review of research. International Journal of Developmental Science, 12(1–2), 89–102. https://doi.org/10.3233/DEV-170241
   Google Scholar
• McCauley, C., & Moskalenko, S. (2017). Understanding political radicalization: The two-pyramids model. The American Psychologist, 72(3), 205–216. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000062
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monahan, J. (2017) The Handbook of the Criminology of Terrorism. In La Free, G, Freilich, J. D (Eds). The individual risk assessment of terrorism: Recent developments. Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Monahan, J. (2012). The individual risk assessment of terrorism. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 18(2), 167–205. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025792
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moskalenko, S., & McCauley, C. (2009). Measuring political mobilization: The distinction between activism and radicalism. Terrorism and Political Violence, 21(2), 239–260. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546550902765508
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moskalenko, S., & McCauley, C. (2020). Radicalization to terrorism: What everyone needs to know. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Muthén, B., & Muthén, L. K. (2000). Integrating person‐centered and variable‐centered analyses: Growth mixture modeling with latent trajectory classes. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 24(6), 882–891.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nivette, A., Eisner, M., & Ribeaud, D. (2017). Developmental predictors of violent extremist attitudes: A test of general strain theory. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 54(6), 755–790. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427817699035
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nylund, K. L., Asparouhov, T., & Muthén, B. O. (2007). Deciding on the number of classes in latent class analysis and growth mixture modeling: A Monte Carlo simulation study. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 14(4), 535–569. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705510701575396
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oppenheimer, D. M., Meyvis, T., & Davidenko, N. (2009). Instructional manipulation checks: Detecting satisficing to increase statistical power. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(4), 867–872. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2009.03.009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perry, G., Wikström, P.-O H., & Roman, G. D. (2018). Differentiating right-wing extremism from potential for violent extremism: The role of criminogenic exposure. International Journal of Developmental Science, 12(1–2), 103–113. https://doi.org/10.3233/DEV-170240
   Google Scholar
• Silke, A. (2014). Risk assessment of terrorist and extremist prisoners. In Prisons, Terrorism and Extremism (pp. 108–121). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Silva, D. M., & Deflem, M. (2020). Radicalization and counter-radicalization. Emerald Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Weine, S., Eisenman, D. P., Kinsler, J., Glik, D. C., & Polutnik, C. (2017). Addressing violent extremism as public health policy and practice. Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression, 9(3), 208–221. https://doi.org/10.1080/19434472.2016.1198413
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wikström, P.-O H., & Bouhana, N. (2016). Analyzing radicalization and terrorism: A situational action theory. The Handbook of the Criminology of Terrorism, 175–186. New Jersey: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Wikström, P.-O H. (2010). Explaining crime as moral actions. In Handbook of the sociology of morality (pp. 211–239). Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Wikström, P.-O H., Oberwittler, D., Treiber, K., & Hardie, B. (2012). Breaking rules: The social and situational dynamics of young people’s urban crime. OUP Oxford.
   Google Scholar
• Wolfowicz, M., Litmanovitz, Y., Weisburd, D., & Hasisi, B. (2020). A field-wide systematic review and meta-analysis of putative risk and protective factors for radicalization outcomes. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 36(3), 407–447. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-019-09439-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar