The Relationship Between Gender Inequality and Female-Victim Intimate Partner Homicide in China: Amelioration, Backlash or Both?

References

• All-China Women’s Federation. (2019). http://www.spcsc.sh.cn/n1939/n1944/n1945/n2300/u1ai199731.html
   Google Scholar
• Amartya, S. (2003). Missing women—revisited. BMJ, 327(7427), 1297–1298.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Anderson, K. L. (2005). Theorizing gender in intimate partner violence research. Sex Roles, 52(11–12), 853–865. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-4204-x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson, K. L. (2009). Gendering coercive control. Violence against Women, 15(12), 1444–1457. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801209346837
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Archer, J. (2006). Cross-cultural differences in physical aggression between partners: A social-role analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review: An Official Journal of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc, 10(2), 133–153. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr1002_3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Attané, I. (2009). The determinants of discrimination against daughters in China: Evidence from a provincial-level analysis. Population Studies, 63(1), 87–102. https://doi.org/10.1080/00324720802535023
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Attané, I. (2012). Being a woman in China today: A demography of gender. China Perspectives, 2012(4), 5–15. https://doi.org/10.4000/chinaperspectives.6013
   Google Scholar
• Bailey, W. C. (1999). The socio-economic status of women and patterns of forcible rape for major US cities. Sociological Focus, 32(1), 43–63. https://doi.org/10.1080/00380237.1999.10571123
   Google Scholar
• Bailey, W. & Peterson, R. (1995). 8. Gender Inequality and Violence Against Women: The Case of Murder. In J. Hagan & R. Peterson (Ed.), Crime and Inequality (pp. 174-205). Redwood City: Stanford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781503615557-010
   Google Scholar
• Berik, G. (2022). Towards improved measures of gender inequality: An evaluation of the UNDP gender inequality index and a proposal. United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN Women).
   Google Scholar
• Brownmiller, S. (1975). Against our will: Men, women and rape. Simon & Schuster.
   Google Scholar
• Carrington, K., Hogg, R., & Sozzo, M. (2016). Southern criminology. British Journal of Criminology, 56(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azv083
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan, H. C., Li, F., Liu, S., & Lu, X. (2019). The primary motivation of sexual homicide offenders in China: Was it for sex, power and control, anger, or money? Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health: CBMH, 29(3), 168–178. https://doi.org/10.1002/cbm.2114
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang, Q., Yip, P. S., & Chen, Y. Y. (2019). Gender inequality and suicide gender ratios in the world. Journal of Affective Disorders, 243, 297–304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.09.032
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chao, F., Gerland, P., Cook, A. R., & Alkema, L. (2019). Systematic assessment of the sex ratio at birth for all countries and estimation of national imbalances and regional reference levels. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 116(19), 9303–9311. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1812593116
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chon, D. S., & Clifford, J. E. (2020). Cross-national examination of the relationship between gender equality and female homicide and rape victimization. Violence against Women, 27(10), 1796–1819. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801220954283
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chrisler, J. C., & Ferguson, S. (2006). Violence against women as a public health issue. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1087(1), 235–249. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1385.009
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Coker, A. L., Williams, C. M., Follingstad, D. R., & Jordan, C. E. (2011). Psychological, reproductive and maternal health, behavioral, and economic impact of intimate partner violence. In J. W. White, M. P. Koss, & A. E. Kazdin (Eds.), Violence against women and children, Vol. 1. Mapping the terrain (pp. 265–284). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/12307-012
   Google Scholar
• Coleman, C., & Moynihan, J. (1996). Understanding crime data: Haunted by the dark figure (Vol. 120). Open University Press Buckingham.
   Google Scholar
• Cooper, A., & Smith, E. L. (2012). Homicide trends in the United States, 1980-2008. BiblioGov.
   Google Scholar
• Dalal, D. K., &Zickar, M. J. (2012). Some Common Myths About Centering Predictor Variables in Moderated Multiple Regression and Polynomial Regression. Organizational Research Methods, 15(3), 339–362. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428111430540
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Das Gupta, M., Zhenghua, J., Bohua, L., Zhenming, X., Chung, W., & Hwa-Ok, B. (2003). Why is son preference so persistent in East and South Asia? A cross-country study of China, India and the Republic of Korea. The Journal of Development Studies, 40(2), 153–187. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220380412331293807
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis, D., & Harrell, S. (1993). Chinese families in the post-Mao era (Vol. 17). Univ of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• DeJong, C., Pizarro, J. M., & McGarrell, E. F. (2011). Can situational and structural factors differentiate between intimate partner and “other” homicide? Journal of Family Violence, 26(5), 365–376. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-011-9371-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Densley, J. A., Hilal, S. M., Li, S. D., & Tang, W. (2017). Homicide–suicide in China: An exploratory study of characteristics and types. Asian Journal of Criminology, 12(3), 199–216. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11417-016-9238-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dery, I., Akurugu, C. A., & Baataar, C. (2022). Community leaders’ perceptions of and responses to intimate partner violence in Northwestern Ghana. PloS One, 17(3), e0262870. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0262870
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dugan, L., Nagin, D. S., & Rosenfeld, R. (1999). Explaining the decline in intimate partner homicide: The effects of changing domesticity, women’s status, and domestic violence resources. Homicide Studies, 3(3), 187–214. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088767999003003001
   Google Scholar
• Dworkin, S. L.,Hatcher, A. M.,Colvin, C., &Peacock, D. (2013). Impact of a Gender-Transformative HIV and Antiviolence Program on Gender Ideologies and Masculinities in Two Rural, South African Communities. Men and Masculinities, 16(2), 181–202. https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X12469878
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Echambadi, Raj., &Hess, J. D. (2007). Mean-Centering Does Not Alleviate Collinearity Problems in Moderated Multiple Regression Models. Marketing Science, 26(3), 438–445. https://doi.org/10.1287/mksc.1060.0263
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fan, S., Kanbur, R., & Zhang, X. (2011). China’s regional disparities: Experience and policy. Review of Development Finance, 1(1), 47–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rdf.2010.10.001
   Google Scholar
• Forsythe, N., Korzeniewicz, R. P., & Durrant, V. (2000). Gender inequalities and economic growth: A longitudinal evaluation. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 48(3), 573–617. https://doi.org/10.1086/452611
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fry, M. W., Skinner, A. C., & Wheeler, S. B. (2019). Understanding the relationship between male gender socialization and gender-based violence among refugees in Sub-Saharan Africa. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 20(5), 638–652. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838017727009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frye, V., Galea, S., Tracy, M., Bucciarelli, A., Putnam, S., & Wilt, S. (2008). The role of neighborhood environment and risk of intimate partner femicide in a large urban area. American Journal of Public Health, 98(8), 1473–1479. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2007.112813
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaye, A., Klugman, J., Kovacevic, M., Twigg, S., & Zambrano, E. (2010). Measuring key disparities in human development: The gender inequality index. Human Development Research Paper, 46, 1–37.
   Google Scholar
• Gillespie, L. K., & Reckdenwald, A. (2017). Gender equality, place, and female-victim intimate partner homicide: A county-level analysis in North Carolina. Feminist Criminology, 12(2), 171–191. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557085115620479
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• González, L., & Rodríguez-Planas, N. (2020). Gender norms and intimate partner violence. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 178, 223–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2020.07.024
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenhalgh, S. (2013). Patriarchal demographics? China’s sex ratio reconsidered. Population and Development Review, 38(s1), 130–149. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1728-4457.2013.00556.x
   Google Scholar
• Hall, S. (2002). Daubing the drudges of fury: Men, violence and the piety of the ‘hegemonic masculinity’ thesis. Theoretical Criminology, 6(1), 35–61. https://doi.org/10.1177/136248060200600102
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heise, L. L. (1998). Violence against women: An integrated, ecological framework. Violence against Women, 4(3), 262–290. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801298004003002
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Heise, L. L., & Kotsadam, A. (2015). Cross-national and multilevel correlates of partner violence: An analysis of data from population-based surveys. The Lancet. Global Health, 3(6), e332–e340. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(15)00013-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Inglehart, R., & Norris, P. (2005). Modernization and gender equality: A response to Adams and Orloff. Politics & Gender, 1(03), 482–492. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1743923X0522113X
   Google Scholar
• Ivert, A. K., Gracia, E., Lila, M., Wemrell, M., & Merlo, J. (2020). Does country-level gender equality explain individual risk of intimate partner violence against women? A multilevel analysis of individual heterogeneity and discriminatory accuracy (MAIHDA) in the European Union. European Journal of Public Health, 30(2), 293–299. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckz162
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ji, Y., & Wu, X. (2018). New gender dynamics in post-reform China: Family, education, and labor market. Chinese Sociological Review, 50(3), 231–239. https://doi.org/10.1080/21620555.2018.1452609
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ji, Y., Wu, X., Sun, S., & He, G. (2017). Unequal care, unequal work: Toward a more comprehensive understanding of gender inequality in post-reform urban China. Sex Roles, 77(11–12), 765–778. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0751-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jiang, Q., & Zhang, C. (2021). Recent sex ratio at birth in China. BMJ Global Health, 6(5), e005438. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2021-005438
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jowell, R., Roberts, C., Fitzgerald, R., & Eva, G. (Eds.). (2007). Measuring attitudes cross-nationally: Lessons from the European Social Survey. Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Kiss, L., Schraiber, L. B., Heise, L., Zimmerman, C., Gouveia, N., & Watts, C. (2012). Gender-based violence and socioeconomic inequalities: Does living in more deprived neighbourhoods increase women’s risk of intimate partner violence? Social Science & Medicine (1982), 74(8), 1172–1179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.11.033
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lauritsen, J. L., & Heimer, K. (2008). The gender gap in violent victimization, 1973–2004. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 24(2), 125–147. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-008-9041-y
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lehti, M., & Kivivuori, J. (2012). Homicide in Finland. In Handbook of European homicide research (pp. 391–404). Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Lei, M. K., Simons, R. L., Simons, L. G., & Edmond, M. B. (2014). Gender equality and violent behavior: How neighborhood gender equality influences the gender gap in violence. Violence and Victims, 29(1), 89–108. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-12-00102
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LeSuer, W. (2020). An international study of the contextual effects of gender inequality on intimate partner sexual violence against women students. Feminist Criminology, 15(1), 97–118. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557085119842652
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levinson, D. (1988). Family violence in cross-cultural perspective (pp. 435–455). Springer US.
   Google Scholar
• Lind, J. T., & Mehlum, H. (2010). With or without U? The appropriate test for a U-shaped relationship. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 72(1), 109–118. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0084.2009.00569.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loftin, C., McDowall, D., Curtis, K., & Fetzer, M. D. (2015). The accuracy of Supplementary Homicide Report rates for large US cities. Homicide Studies, 19(1), 6–27. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088767914551984
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Messerschmidt, J. W. (1996). Managing to kill: Masculinities and the space shuttle challenger explosion. In Crime, criminal justice and masculinities (pp. 191–212). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Michelson, E. (2019). Decoupling: Marital violence and the struggle to divorce in China. American Journal of Sociology, 125(2), 325–381. https://doi.org/10.1086/705747
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mouzos, J. (2002). Quality control in the National homicide monitoring program (NHMP). Citeseer.
   Google Scholar
• National Bureau of Statistics. (2021). China population census yearbook 2020. http://www.stats.gov.cn/sj/pcsj/rkpc/7rp/indexch.htm. (in Chinese).
   Google Scholar
• Overstreet, S., McNeeley, S., & Lapsey, Jr, D. S. (2021). Can victim, offender, and situational characteristics differentiate between lethal and non-lethal incidents of intimate partner violence occurring among adults? Homicide Studies, 25(3), 220–238. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088767920959402
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pampel, F. (2011). Cohort changes in the sociodemographic determinants of gender egalitarianism. Social Forces; a Scientific Medium of Social Study and Interpretation, 89(3), 961–982. https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2011.0011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parish, W. L., & Farrer, J. (2000). Gender and Family. In W. Tang & W. L. Parish (Eds.), Chinese urban life under reform (pp. 232–272). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Park, G. R., Park, E. J., Jun, J., & Kim, N. S. (2017). Association between intimate partner violence and mental health among Korean married women. Public Health, 152, 86–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2017.07.023
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Permanyer, I. (2013). A critical assessment of the UNDP’s gender inequality index. Feminist Economics, 19(2), 1–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2013.769687
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peterson, C., Kearns, M. C., McIntosh, W. L., Estefan, L. F., Nicolaidis, C., McCollister, K. E., Gordon, A., & Florence, C. (2018). Lifetime economic burden of intimate partner violence among US adults. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 55(4), 433–444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2018.04.049
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pimentel, E. E. (2006). Gender ideology, household behavior, and backlash in urban China. Journal of Family Issues, 27(3), 341–365. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X05283507
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qian, Y. (2012). Marriage squeeze for highly educated women? Gender differences in assortative marriage in urban China [Master’s thesis]. The Ohio State University.
   Google Scholar
• Qian, Y., & Li, J. (2020). Separating spheres: Cohort differences in gender attitudes about work and family in China. China Review, 20(2), 19–51.
   Google Scholar
• Raudenbush, S. W., & Bryk, A. S. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods (Vol. 1). Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Reckdenwald, A. (2008). Examining changes in male and female intimate partner homicide over time, 1990–2000. University of Florida.
   Google Scholar
• Ridgeway, C. L., & Correll, S. J. (2004). Unpacking the gender system: A theoretical perspective on gender beliefs and social relations. Gender & Society, 18(4), 510–531. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243204265269
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Risman, B. J. (2004). Gender as a social structure: Theory wrestling with activism. Gender & Society, 18(4), 429–450. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243204265349
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Risman, B. J. (2017). 2016 southern sociological society presidential address: Are millennials cracking the gender structure? Social Currents, 4(3), 208–227. https://doi.org/10.1177/2329496517697145
   Google Scholar
• Rosenfeld, R. (1997). Changing relationships between men and women: A note on the decline in intimate partner homicide. Homicide Studies, 1(1), 72–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088767997001001006
   Google Scholar
• Russell, D. (1975). The politics of rape: The victim’s perspective. Stein and Day. ORDER FORM.
   Google Scholar
• Sardinha, L., Maheu-Giroux, M., Stöckl, H., Meyer, S. R., & García-Moreno, C. (2022). Global, regional, and national prevalence estimates of physical or sexual, or both, intimate partner violence against women in 2018. The Lancet, 399(10327), 803–813. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)02664-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwendinger, J. R., & Schwendinger, H. (1983). Rape and inequality (pp. 178–179). Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Slote, W. H. (1998). Psychocultural dynamics within the Confucian family. In Confucianism and the family (pp. 37–51). State University of New York Press.
   Google Scholar
• Straus, M. A. (1994). State-to-state differences in social inequality and social bonds in relation to assaults on wives in the United States. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 25(1), 7–24. https://doi.org/10.3138/jcfs.25.1.7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tang, T. N., & Oatley, K. (2002). Transition and engagement of life roles among Chinese immigrant women. American Psychological Association Annual Convention.
   Google Scholar
• The Ministry of Public Security of the PRC. (2020). The press conference of the Ministry of Public Security informs the main situation of the special operations targeting homicide cases nationwide (in Chinese). http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2020-12/12/content_5569028.htm
   Google Scholar
• The Supreme Court of PRC, 1st Criminal Tribunals. (2015). The Supreme Court of the PRC, The supreme people’s procuratorate of the PRC, The Ministry of Public Security of the PRC, Ministry of Justice of the PRC: Comprehension and application of judicial policies and case guidance for domestic violence offences. People’s court press (in Chinese).
   Google Scholar
• Titterington, V. B. (2006). A retrospective investigation of gender inequality and female homicide victimization. Sociological Spectrum, 26(2), 205–236. https://doi.org/10.1080/02732170500463429
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tu, W., Hejtmanek, M., & Wachman, A. (1992). The Confucian world observed: A contemporary discussion of Confucian humanism in East Asia. University of Hawaii Press.
   Google Scholar
• UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). (2020). Human development report 2020–the next frontier: Human development and the anthropocene. UNDP (United Nations Development Programme).
   Google Scholar
• UNICEF. (2021). Figure 1.9 sex ratio at birth, 1982–2021. https://www.unicef.cn/en/figure-19-sex-ratio-birth-19822017
   Google Scholar
• UNODC (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime). (2019). Global study on homicide. UNODC. https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/gsh
   Google Scholar
• Van Buuren, S., & Oudshoorn, K. (1999). Flexible multivariate imputation by MICE. TNO.
   Google Scholar
• Vieraitis, L. M., & Williams, M. R. (2002). Assessing the impact of gender inequality on female homicide victimization across US cities: A racially disaggregated analysis. Violence Against Women, 8(1), 35–63. https://doi.org/10.1177/10778010222182937
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vieraitis, L. M., Kovandzic, T. V., & Britto, S. (2008). Women’s status and risk of homicide victimization. Homicide Studies, 12(2), 163–176. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088767907313148
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webb, J. (1997). The politics of equal opportunity. Gender, Work & Organization, 4(3), 159–169. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0432.00032
   Google Scholar
• Whaley, R. B. (2001). The paradoxical relationship between gender inequality and rape: Toward a refined theory. Gender & Society, 15(4), 531–555. https://doi.org/10.1177/089124301015004003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whaley, R. B., & Messner, S. F. (2002). Gender equality and gendered homicides. Homicide Studies, 6(3), 188–210. https://doi.org/10.1177/108876790200600302
   Google Scholar
• Whaley, R. B., Messner, S. F., & Veysey, B. M. (2013). The relationship between gender equality and rates of inter-and intra-sexual lethal violence: An exploration of functional form. Justice Quarterly, 30(4), 732–754. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2011.624114
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, J. E., & Holmes, K. A. (1981). The second assault: Rape and public attitudes. Greenwood Press.
   Google Scholar
• World Bank. (2017). World development report 2017: Governance and the law. The World Bank.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. (2013). Global and regional estimates of violence against women: Prevalence and health effects of intimate partner violence and non-partner sexual violence. World Health Organization.
   Google Scholar
• Wright, K. A., Turanovic, J. J., & Rodriguez, N. (2016). Racial inequality, ethnic inequality, and the system involvement of at-risk youth: Implications for the racial invariance and Latino paradox theses. Justice Quarterly, 33(5), 863–889. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2014.987310
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xin, Y., & Cai, T. (2020). Paying money for freedom: Effects of monetary compensation on sentencing for criminal traffic offenses in China. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 36(1), 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-019-09409-w
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao, S. (2020). Characteristics of intimate partner homicide in China: Compared with previous studies in other countries. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 64(2–3), 210–231.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar