The impact of chatbot conversational skill on engagement and perceived humanness

References

• Aljaroodi, H.M.; Adam, M.T.P.; Chiong, R.; and Teubner, T. Avatars and embodied agents in experimental information systems research: A systematic review and conceptual framework. Australasian Journal of Information Systems, 23, (October 2019), 1–37.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Appel, J.; Von Der Pütten, A.; Krämer, N.C.; and Gratch, J. Does humanity matter? Analyzing the importance of social cues and perceived agency of a computer system for the emergence of social reactions during human-computer interaction. Advances in Human-Computer Interaction, 2012, (2012), 1–10.
   Google Scholar
• Araujo, T. Living up to the chatbot hype: The influence of anthropomorphic design cues and communicative agency framing on conversational agent and company perceptions. Computers in Human Behavior, 85, (2018), 183–189.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baylor, A.L. Promoting motivation with virtual agents and avatars: Role of visual presence and appearance. Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences, 364, 1535 (2009), 3559–3565.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berinsky, A.J.; Huber, G.A.; and Lenz, G.S. Evaluating online labor markets for experimental research: Amazon.com’s mechanical turk. Political Analysis, 20, 3 (2012), 351–368.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Biocca, F.; Harms, C.; and Burgoon, J.K. Toward a more robust theory and measure of social presence: Review and suggested criteria. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 12, 5 (2003), 456–480.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bottles, K. Will Patients Trust Sociable Humanoid Robots. 2011. Accessed on June 1, 2018: http://www.kevinmd.com/blog/2011/08/patients-trust-sociable-humanoid-robots.html.
   Google Scholar
• Burgoon, J.K.; Birk, T.; and Pfau, M. Nonverbal behaviors, persuasion, and credibility. Human communication research, 17, 1 (1990), 140–169.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burgoon, J.K.; Bonito, J.A.; Bengtsson, B.; Ramirez Artemio, J.; Dunbar, N.E.; and Miczo, N. Testing the interactivity model: Communication processes, partner assessments, and the quality of collaborative work. Journal of Management Information Systems, 16, 3 (1999), 33–56.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burgoon, J.K.; Bonito, J.A.; Lowry, P.B.; Humpherys, S.L.; Moody, G.D; Gaskin J.E.; and Giboney J.S. Application of expectancy violations Theory to communication with and judgments about embodied agents during a decision-making task. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 91, (July 2016), 24–36.
   Google Scholar
• Cassell, J.; and Bickmore, T. External manifestations of trustworthiness in the interface. Communications of the ACM, 43, 12 ( December 2000), 50–56.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, J. Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates, 1988.
   Google Scholar
• Demeure, V.; Niewiadomski, R.; and Pelachaud, C. How is believability of a virtual agent related to warmth, competence, personification, and embodiment?. Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments, 20, 5 (2011), 431–448.
   Google Scholar
• Derrick, D.C.; Meservy, T.O.; Jenkins, J.L.; Burgoon, J.K.; and Nunamaker, J.F. Detecting deceptive chat-based communication using typing behavior and message cues. ACM Transactions on Management Information Systems, 4, 2 (2013), 9.
   Google Scholar
• Enge, E. Rating the Smarts of the Digital Personal Assistants in 2018. 2018.
   Google Scholar
• Facebook. Introducing Bots on Messenger. 2016. Accessed on April 2, 2017: https://developers.facebook.com/videos/f8-2016/introducing-bots-on-messenger/.
   Google Scholar
• Feine, J.; Gnewuch, U.; Morana, S.; and Maedche, A. A taxonomy of social cues for conversational agents. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 132, (2019), 138–161.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fiske, S.T.; and Taylor, S.E. Social Cognition: From Brains to Culture. London: Sage Publication, 2017.
   Google Scholar
• Gefen, D.; and Straub, D.W. Consumer trust in B2C e-Commerce and the importance of social presence: experiments in e-Products and e-Services. Omega, 32, 6 ( December 2004), 407–424.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gnewuch, U.; Morana, S.; Adam, M.T.P.; and Maedche, A. Faster is not always better: Understanding the effect of dynamic response delays in human-chatbot interaction. In Proceedings of the 26th European Conference on Information Systems. Portsmouth, UK, June 23-28, 2018.
   Google Scholar
• Google. Responses. DialogFlow, 2019. Accessed on May 5, 2019: https://cloud.google.com/dialogflow/docs/intents-responses.
   Google Scholar
• Grand View Research. Chatbot Market Size To Reach $1.25 Billion By 2025 | CAGR: 24.3%. 2017. Accessed on December 11, 2018: https://www.grandviewresearch.com/press-release/global-chatbot-market.
   Google Scholar
• Gratch, J.; Wang, N.; Gerten, J.; Fast, E.; and Duffy, R. Creating rapport with virtual agents. In C. Pelachaud, J.-C. Martine, E. André, G. Chollet, K. Karpouzis and D. Pelé (eds.), Intelligent Virtual Agents. Paris: Springer, 2007, pp. 125–138.
   Google Scholar
• Grice, H.P. Logic and conversation. In P. Cole and J.L. Morgan (eds.), Syntax and Semantics 3: Speech Acts, 1975, pp. 41–58. New York, London: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Guadagno, R.E.; Blascovich, J.; Bailenson, J.N.; and Mccall, C. Virtual humans and persuasion: The effects of agency and behavioral realism. Media Psychology, 10, (2007), 1–22.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hassanein, K.; and Head, M. Manipulating perceived social presence through the web interface and its impact on attitude towards online shopping. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 65, 8 ( August 2007), 689–708.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayes, P.; and Ford, K. Turing Test Considered Harmful. In Proceedings of International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence. Montreal, Quebec, Canada, 1995, pp. 972–977.
   Google Scholar
• Heerink, M.; Kröse, B.; Evers, V.; and Wielinga, B. Relating conversational expressiveness to social presence and acceptance of an assistive social robot. Virtual Reality, 14, 1 (2010), 77–84.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holtgraves, T.M.; Ross, S.J.; Weywadt, C.R.; and Han, T.L. Perceiving artificial social agents. Computers in Human Behavior, 23, 5 (September 2007), 2163–2174.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang, L.; Morency, L.-P.; and Gratch, J. Virtual rapport 2.0. In Intelligent Virtual Agents edited by Vilhjálmsson, H.H., Kopp, S., Marsella, S., Thorisson, K.R. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer, 2011, pp. 68–79.
   Google Scholar
• Ijaz, K.; Bogdanovych, A.; and Simoff, S. Enhancing the believability of embodied conversational agents through environment-, self- and interaction-awareness. In Proceedings of the Thirty-Fourth Australasian Computer Science Conference. Perth, Australia, 2011, pp. 107–116.
   Google Scholar
• Jensen, M.L.; Lowry, P.B.; and Jenkins, J.L. Effects of automated and participative decision support in computer-aided credibility assessment. Journal of Management Information Systems, 28, 1 (2011), 201–234.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kang, S.-H.; Gratch, J.; Wang, N.; and Watt, J.H. Does the Contingency of Agents’ Nonverbal Feedback Affect Users’ Social Anxiety? In Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems. Estoril, Portugal, 2008, pp. 120–127.
   Google Scholar
• Kim, Y.; and Sundar, S.S. Anthropomorphism of computers: Is it mindful or mindless? Computers in Human Behavior, 28, 1 (2012), 241–250.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirakowski, J.; O’Donnell, P.; Yiu, A.; O’Donnell, P.; and Yiu, A. The perception of artificial intelligence as “human” by computer users. Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction: Intelligent Multimodal Interaction Environments, (2007), 376–384. Beijing, China.
   Google Scholar
• Kobori, Y.; Osaka, A.; Soh, S.; and Okada, H. Novel application for sexual transmitted infection screening with an AI chatbot. The Journal of Urology, 199, 4, Supplement (2018), e189–e190.
   Google Scholar
• Koufaris, M. Applying the technology acceptance model and flow theory to online consumer behavior. Information Systems Research, 13, 2 (2002), 205–223.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krämer, N.C.; Lucas, G.; Schmitt, L.; and Gratch, J. Social snacking with a virtual agent – On the interrelation of need to belong and effects of social responsiveness when interacting with artificial entities. International Journal of Human Computer Studies, 109, September 2017 ( 2018), 112–121.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, T.; Jagannath, K.; Aggarwal, N.; Sridar, R; Wilde, S; Hill, T.; and Chen Y. Intelligent career advisers in your pocket? A need assessment study of chatbots for student career advising. In Proceedings of the 25th Americas Conference on Information Systems. Cancun, Mexico, 2019.
   Google Scholar
• Lowry, P.B.; Roberts, T.L.; Romano, N.C.; and Cheney, P. The impact of group size and social presence on small-group communication: Does computer-mediated communication make a difference? Small Group Research, 37, 6 (2006), 631–661.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lowry, P.B.; Romano, N.C.; Jenkins, J.L.; and Guthrie, R.W. The CMC interactivity model: How interactivity enhances communication quality and process satisfaction in lean-media groups. Journal of Management Information Systems, 26, 1 (2009), 155–196.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marakas, G.M.; Johnson, R.D.; and Palmer, J.W. Theoretical model of differential social attributions toward computing technology: When the metaphor becomes the model. International Journal of Human Computer Studies, 52, 4 (2000) 719–750.
   Google Scholar
• Masnick, M. No, A “Supercomputer” Did NOT Pass The Turing Test For The First Time And Everyone Should Know Better. 2014. Accessed on January 3, 2016: https://www.techdirt.com/articles/20140609/07284327524/no-supercomputer-did-not-pass-turing-test-first-time-everyone-should-know-better.shtml.
   Google Scholar
• McElhearn, K. Siri-ous mistakes: Apple’s personal assistant still needs a lot of work. Macworld, 2016. Acessed on February 12, 2017: https://www.macworld.com/article/3106088/sirious-mistakes.html.
   Google Scholar
• Meyer, J.; Miller, C.; Hancock, P.; de Visser, E.J.; and Dorneich, M. Politeness in Machine-Human and Human-Human Interaction. In Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting. 2016, pp. 279–283. Washington, DC.
   Google Scholar
• Microsoft News Center. Microsoft outlines intelligence vision and announces new innovations for Windows 10. 2016. Accessed on July 15, 2017: https://news.microsoft.com/2016/03/30/microsoft-outlines-intelligence-vision-and-announces-new-innovations-for-windows-10.
   Google Scholar
• Mitchell, W.J.; Szerszen, K.A.; Lu, A.S.; Schermerhorn, P.W.; Scheutz, M.; and MacDorman, K.F. A Mismatch in the human realism of face and voice produces an uncanny valley. i-Perception, 2, 1 (2011), 10–12.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moon, Y. Intimate exchanges: Using computers to elicit self-disclosure from consumers. Journal of Consumer Research, 26, 4 (2000), 323–339.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nass, C.; and Moon, Y. Machines and mindlessness: Social responses to computers. Journal of Social Issues, 56, 1 ( January 2000), 81–103.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nass, C.; Steuer, J.; and Tauber, E.R. Computers are Social Actors. In Proceedings of the ACM CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. ACM Press, New York, 1994, pp. 72–78.
   Google Scholar
• Park, S.; Choi, J.; Lee, S.; Oh, C; Kim, C; La, S; Lee, J; and Suh, B. Designing a chatbot for a brief motivational interview on stress management: Qualitative case study. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 21, 4 (2019), e12231.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perse, E.M.; Burton, P.I.; Lears, M.E.; Kovner, E.S.; and Sen, R.J. Predicting computer-mediated communication in a college class. Communication Research Reports, 9, 2 (1992), 161–170.
   Google Scholar
• Proudfoot, D. Anthropomorphism and AI: Turing’s much misunderstood imitation game. Artificial Intelligence, 175, 5–6 (April 2011), 950–957.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Purington, A.; Taft, J.G.; Sannon, S.; Bazarova, N.N.; and Taylor, S.H. “Alexa is my new BFF”: Social roles, user satisfaction, and personification of the Amazon Echo. Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems - Proceedings, Part F1276, Denver, CO, May 6 - 11, (2017), pp. 2853–2859.
   Google Scholar
• Qiu, L.; and Benbasat, I. Evaluating anthropomorphic product recommendation agents: A social relationship perspective to designing information systems. Journal of Management Information Systems, 25, 4 (2009), 145–182.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reeves, B.; and Nass, C. The Media Equation: How People Treat Computers, Television, and New Media Like Real People and Places. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
   Google Scholar
• Riedl, R.; Mohr, P.N.C.; Kenning, P.H.; Davis, F.D.; and Heekeren, H.R. Trusting humans and avatars: A brain imaging study based on evolution theory. Journal of Management Information Systems, 30, 4 (2014), 83–114.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rietz, T.; Benke, I.; and Maedche, A. The impact of anthropomorphic and functional chatbot design features in enterprise collaboration systems on user acceptance. In Wirtschaftsinformatik 2019 Proceedings. Siegen, Germany, February 24-27, 2019.
   Google Scholar
• Rosseel, Y. lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48, 2 (2012), 1–36.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rzepka, C.; and Berger, B. User interaction with AI-enabled systems: A systematic review of IS research. In Proceedings of the 39th International Conference on Information Systems. San Francisco, CA, December 13-16, 2018.
   Google Scholar
• Schuetzler, R.M.; Giboney, J.S.; Grimes, G.M.; and Nunamaker, J.F. The influence of conversational agent embodiment and conversational relevance on socially desirable responding. Decision Support Systems, 114, October (2018), 94–102.
   Google Scholar
• Schuetzler, R.M.; Grimes, G.M.; and Giboney, J.S. The effect of conversational agent skill on user behavior during deception. Computers in Human Behavior, 97, (August 2019), 250–259.
   Google Scholar
• Schultze, U. Embodiment and presence in virtual worlds: A review. Journal of Information Technology, 25, 4 (2010), 434–449.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schumaker, R.P.; and Chen, H. Leveraging Question Answer technology to address terrorism inquiry. Decision Support Systems, 43, 4 (2007), 1419–1430.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schumaker, R.P.; Ginsburg, M.; Chen, H.; and Liu, Y. An evaluation of the chat and knowledge delivery components of a low-level dialog system: The AZ-ALICE experiment. Decision Support Systems, 42, 4 (January 2007), 2236–2246.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seeger, A.-M.; Pfeiffer, J.; and Heinzl, A. Designing anthropomorphic conversational agents: Development and empirical evaluation of a design framework. In Proceedings of the 39th International Conference on Information Systems. San Francisco, CA, December 13-16, 2018, pp. 17.
   Google Scholar
• Short, J.; Williams, E.; and Christie, B. The Social Psychology of Telecommunications. London: Wiley, 1976.
   Google Scholar
• Spitzberg, B.H.; and Cupach, W.R. Conversational skill and locus of perception. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 7, 3 (1985), 207–220.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Subramaniam, S.; Aggarwal, P.; Dasgupta, G.B.; and Paradkar, A. COBOTS - A Cognitive multi-bot conversational framework for technical support. In Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Autonomous Agents and MultiAgent Systems. International Foundation for Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems, Richland, SC, 2018, pp. 597–604.
   Google Scholar
• Sundar, S.S.; Bellur, S.; Oh, J.; Jia, H.; and Kim, H.-S. Theoretical importance of contingency in human-computer interaction. Communication Research, 43, 5 (July 2016), 595–625.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tamir, P.; and Zohar, A. Anthropomorphism and teleology in reasoning about biological phenomena. Science Education, 75, 1 (1991), 57–67.
   Google Scholar
• R Core Team (2014). R: A language and environment for statistical Computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria.. http://www.r-project.org/.
   Google Scholar
• Turing, A.M. Computing machinery and intelligence. Mind, LIX, 236(1950), 433–460.
   Google Scholar
• Wang, W.; and Benbasat, I. Recommendation agents for electronic commerce: Effects of explanation facilities on trusting beliefs. Journal of Management Information Systems, 23, 4 (2007), 217–246.
   Google Scholar
• Weizenbaum, J. ELIZA: A computer program for the study of natural language communication between man and machine. Communications of the ACM, 9, 1 (1966), 36–45.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilcox, B. ChatScript. 2017. Accessed on June 5, 2017: https://github.com/bwilcox-1234/ChatScript.
   Google Scholar
• Xu, A.; Liu, Z.; Guo, Y.; Sinha, V.; and Akkiraju, R. A New Chatbot for Customer Service on Social Media. In Proceedings of the 2017 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. ACM, New York, 2017, pp. 3506–3510.
   Google Scholar
• Yuan, L.; and Dennis, A.R. Acting like humans? Anthropomorphism and consumer’s willingness to pay in electronic commerce. Journal of Management Information Systems, 36, 2 (2019), 450–477.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zahedi, F.; and Song, J. Dynamics of trust revision: Using health infomediaries. Journal of Management Information Systems, 24, 4 ( April 2008), 225–248.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar