Readjustment of Urban Veterans: A Mental Health and Substance Use Profile of Iraq and Afghanistan Veterans in Higher Education

REFERENCES

• Mikelson JD, Saunders KP. Enrollment, transfers, and degree completion for veterans. In: Hamrick FA, Rumann CB, eds. Called to Serve: A Handbook on Student Veterans and Higher Education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass; 2013:140–164.
   Google Scholar
• DiRamio D, Ackerman R, Mitchell RL. From combat to campus: voices of student-veterans. NASPA J. 2008;45:73–102.
   Google Scholar
• McBain L, Kim YM, Cook BJ, Snead KM. From Soldier to Student II: Assessing Campus Programs for Veterans and Service Members. Washington, DC: American Council on Education; 2012.
   Google Scholar
• Bowen HR. Investment in Learning: The Individual and Social Value of American Higher Education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass; 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Perna LW, Finney JE. The Attainment Agenda: State Policy Leadership in Higher Education. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press; 2014.
   Google Scholar
• US Department of Defense. Defense Activity of Non-Traditional Education Support (DANTES). Available at: http://www.dantes.doded.mil/_content/fact-sheets/FactSheetFY11.pdf. Published 2011. Accessed August 7, 2015.
   Google Scholar
• Radford AW. Military Service Members and Veterans in Higher Education: What the New GI Bill May Mean for Postsecondary Institutions. Washington, DC: American Council on Education; 2009.
   Google Scholar
• Grossman PD. Foreword with a challenge: leading our campuses away from the perfect storm. J Postsecond Educ Disabil. 2009;22:4–9.
   Google Scholar
• American Council on Education. Serving Those Who Serve: Higher Education and America's Veterans. Washington, DC: American Council on Education; 2009.
   Google Scholar
• Edens EL, Kasprow W, Tsai J, Rosenheck RA. Association of substance use and VA service-connected disability benefits with risk of homelessness among veterans. Am J Addict. 2011;20:412–419.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harper SR, Patton LD, Wooden OS. Access and equity for African American students in higher education: a critical race historical analysis of policy efforts. J Higher Educ. 2009;80:389–414.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perna LW, Milem J, Gerald D, Baum E, Rowan H, Hutchens N. The status of equity for Black undergraduates in public higher education in the South: still separate and unequal. Res Higher Educ. 2006;47:197–228.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matthews D. A Stronger Nation through Higher Education: Closing the Gaps in College Attainment. Indianapolis, IN: The Lumina Foundation; 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Rubalcaba JA. Effects of the Post-9/11 GI Bill on Veterans' Enrollment. Washington, DC: Association for the Study of Higher Education; November 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Tanielian TL, Jaycox L. Invisible Wounds of War: Psychological and Cognitive Injuries, Their Consequences, and Services to Assist Recovery. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation; 2008.
   Google Scholar
• Church TE. Returning veterans on campus with war related injuries and the long road back home. J Postsecond Educ Disabil. 2009;22:224–232.
   Google Scholar
• Madaus JW, Miller WK, Vance ML. Veterans with disabilities in postsecondary education. J Postsecond Educ Disabil. 2009;22:191–198.
   Google Scholar
• Emmons M. Traumatic brain injury: the ‘signature wound’ of wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. Oakland Tribune. December 26, 2006.
   Google Scholar
• Congressional Budget Office. The Veterans Health Administration's Treatment of PTSD and Traumatic Brain Injury Among Recent Combat Veterans. Washington, DC: The Congress of the United States; 2012.
   Google Scholar
• Donnelly KT, Donnelly JP, Dunnam M, et al. Reliability, sensitivity, and specificity of the VA traumatic brain injury screening tool. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 2011;26:439 –453.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bray RM. Department of Defense Survey of Health Related Behaviors Among Active Duty Military Personnel: A Component of the Defense Lifestyle Assessment Program. Darby, PA: Diane Publishing; 2009.
   Google Scholar
• Barry AE, Whiteman SD, MacDermid Wadsworth S. Student service members/veterans in higher education: a systematic review. J Stud Aff Res Pract. 2014;51:30–42.
   Google Scholar
• Eliot M, Gonzalez C, Larsen B. U.S. military veterans transition to college: combat PTSD and alienation on campus. J Stud Aff Res Pract. 2011;48:279–296.
   Google Scholar
• Barry AE, Whiteman S, Wadswroth SM, Hitt S. The alcohol use and associated mental health problems of student service members/veterans in higher education. Drugs Educ Prev Policy. 2012;19:415–425.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Widome R, Kehle SM, Carlson KF, Laska MN, Gulden A, Lust K. Post-traumatic stress disorder and health risk behaviors among Afghanistan and Iraq war veterans attending college. Am J Health Behav. 2011;35:387–392.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rudd MD, Goulding J, Bryan CJ. Student veterans: a national survey exploring psychological symptoms and suicide risk. Prof Psychol Res Pr. 2011;42:354–360.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Widhome R, Kehle SM, Carlson KF, Nelson Laska M, Gulden A, Lust K. Post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and health risk behaviors among Afghanistan and Iraq war veterans attending college. Am J Health Behav. 2011;35:387–392.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• RAND Center for Military Health Policy Research. Invisible Wounds: Mental Health and Cognitive Care Needs of America's Returning Veterans. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation; 2008.
   Google Scholar
• US Army Office of the Chief of Public Affairs. Health Promotion, Risk Reduction, Suicide Prevention, Report 2010. Washington, DC: US Army Office for the Chief of Public Affairs; 2010. Available at: http://www.ncsl.org/documents/environ/Armypreventrept10.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Chiarelli PW. Army Health Promotion Risk Reduction Suicide Prevention Report 2010. Darby, PA: Diane Publishing; 2010.
   Google Scholar
• Ackerman R, DiRamio D, Mitchell RLG. Transitions: combat veterans as college students. New Dir Stud Serv. 2009;126:5–14.
   Google Scholar
• Cook BJ, Kim YM. From Soldier to Student: Easing the Transition of Service Members on Campus. Washington, DC: American Council on Education; 2009.
   Google Scholar
• Figley CR, Leventman S. Introduction: estrangement and victimization. In: Figley CR, Leventman S, eds. Strangers at Home: Vietnam Veterans Since the War. New York: Praeger; 1980:xxi–xxxi.
   Google Scholar
• Whiteman SD, Barry AE, Mroczek DK, Macdermid Wadsworth S. The development and implications of peer emotional support for student service members/veterans and civilian college students. J Couns Psychol. 2013;60:265–278.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rumann CB, Hamrick FA. Student veterans in transition: re-enrolling after war zone deployments. J Higher Educ. 2010;81:431–458.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Livingston WG, Havice PA, Cawthon TW, Fleming DS. Coming home: student veterans' articulation of college re-enrollment. J Stud Aff Res Pract. 2011;48:315–331.
   Google Scholar
• Johnston LD, O'Malley PM, Bachman JG, Schulenberg JE. Monitoring the Future National Survey Results On Drug Use, 1975–2011. Vol. 2. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA); 2012.
   Google Scholar
• Grucza RA, Norberg KE, Bierut LJ. Binge drinking among youth and young adults in the United States. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2009;48:672–702.
   Google Scholar
• Wechsler H, Lee JE, Kuo M, Seibring M, Newlson TF, Lee H. Trends in college binge drinking during a period of increased prevention efforts: findings from 4 Harvard School of Public Health college alcohol study surveys, 1993–2001. J Am College Health. 2002;50:203–217.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnston LD, O'Malley PM, Bachman JG, Schulenberg JE. Monitoring the Future National Survey Results on Drug Use 1975–2012. Bethesda, MD: National Institute of Drug Abuse (NIDA); 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Schue HG, Slowey M. Participation and exclusion: a comparative analysis of non-traditional students and lifelong learners in higher education. Higher Educ. 2002;44:309–327.
   Google Scholar
• Evans NJ, Forney DS, Guido-DiBrito F. Student Development in College: Theory, Research, and Practice. 1st ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers; 1998.
   Google Scholar
• Gaultney JF. The prevalence of sleep disorders in college students: impact on academic performance. J Am Coll Health. 2010;59:91–97.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barry AE, Whiteman SD, MacDermaid Wadsworth SM. Implications of posttraumatic stress among military-affiliated and civilian students. J Am Coll Health. 2012;60:562–579.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Institute on Drug Abuse. Substance abuse among the military, veterans, and their families. Available at: http://www.drugabuse.gov/sites/default/files/veterans.pdf. Published 2012. Accessed September 14, 2012.
   Google Scholar
• Heckathorn DD. Respondent driven sampling: a new approach to the study of hidden populations. Soc Problems. 1997;44:174–199.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heckathorn DD. Respondent-driven sampling II: deriving valid population estimates from chain-referral samples of hidden populations. Soc Problems. 2002;49:11–34.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heckathorn DD. Snowball versus respondent-driven sampling. Sociol Methodol. 2011;41:355–366.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abdul-Quader AS, Heckathorn DD, McKnight C, et al. Effectiveness of respondent-driven sampling for recruiting drug users in New York City: findings from a pilot study. AIDS Behav. 2006;9:403–408.
   Google Scholar
• Iguchi M, Ober A, Berry S, et al. Simultaneous recruitment of drug users and men who have sex with men in the United States and Russia using respondent-driven sampling: sampling methods and implications. J Urban Health. 2009;86:5–31.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson CV, Mimiaga MJ, Reisner SL, et al. Health care access and sexually transmitted infection screening frequency among at-risk Massachusetts men who have sex with men. Am J Public Health. 2009:S187–S192.
   Google Scholar
• Lansky A, Abdul-Quader AS, Cribbin M, et al. Developing an HIV behavioral surveillance system for injecting drug users: the National HIV Behavioral Surveillance System. Public Health Reports. 2007;122:48–55.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rusch ML, Lozada R, Pollini RA, et al. Polydrug use among IDUs in Tijuana, Mexico: correlates of methamphetamine use and route of administration by gender. J Urban Health. 2009;86:760–775.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shahmanesh M, Wayal S, Cowan F, Mabey D, Copas A, Patel V. Suicidal behavior among female sex workers in Goa, India: the silent epidemic. 2009;7:1239–1246.
   Google Scholar
• Wang J, Falck RS, Li L, Rahman A, Carlson RG. Respondent-driven sampling in the recruitment of illicit stimulant drug users in a rural setting: findings and technical issues. Addict Behav. 2007;32:924–937.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wattana W, van Griensven F, Rhucharoenpornpanich O, et al. Respondent-driven sampling to assess characteristics and estimate the number of injection drug users in Bangkok Thailand. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2007;90:228–233.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jeffri J. Social networks of jazz musicians. In: Nichols B, Ball D, Link G, Burks J, eds. Changing the Beat: A Study of the Worklife of Jazz Musicians. Vol. 3. Respondent-Driven Sampling. Washington, DC: National Endowment for the Arts; 2003:48–61.
   Google Scholar
• Wejnert C, Heckathorn DD. Web-based network sampling: efficiency and efficacy of respondent-driven sampling for online research. Sociol Methods Res. 2008;37:105–134.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. National Survey on Drug Use and Health Public Use Codebook. Washington, DC: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration; 2009.
   Google Scholar
• US Department of Defense. Enhanced postdeployment health assessment process. Available at: http://www.pdhealth.mil/dcs/dd_form_2796.asp. Published: September 14, 2009. Accessed: August 7, 2015.
   Google Scholar
• Graham DP, Cardon AL. An update on substance use and treatment following traumatic brain injury. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2008;1141:148–162.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blanchard EB, Jones-Alexander J, Buckley TC, Forneris CA. Psychometric properties of the PTSD checklist (PCL). Behav Res Ther. 1996;34:669–673.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karney BR, Ramchand R, Osilla KC, Caldaraone LB, Burns RM. Invisible Wounds: Predicting the Immediate and Long-Term Consequences of Mental Health Problems in Veterans of Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom. Santa Monica, CA: RAND; 2008.
   Google Scholar
• Kroenke K, Spitzer RL, Williams JBW. The PHQ-9: validity of a brief depression severity measure. J Gen Intern Med. 2001;16:606–613.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pavot W, Diener E. Review of the Satisfaction With Life Scale. Psychol Assess. 1993;5:164–172.
   Google Scholar
• Frisch MB, Cornell J, Villanueva M, Retzlaff P. Clinical validation of the Quality of Life Inventory: a measure of life satisfaction for use in treatment planning and outcome assessment. Psychol Assess. 1992;4:92–101.
   Google Scholar
• Heckathorn DD. Respondent driven sampling. Available at: http://www.respondentdrivensampling.org. Published 2013. Accessed August 8, 2012.
   Google Scholar
• Karen D. Changes in access to higher education in the United States: 1980–1992. Sociol Educ. 2002;75:191–210.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Briere J, Scott C. Principles of Trauma Therapy. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications; 2006.
   Google Scholar
• US Department of Defense Task Force on Mental Health. An Achievable Vision: Report of the Department of Defense Task Force on Mental Health. Falls Church, VA: Defense Health Board; 2007.
   Google Scholar
• Dobie DJ, Kivlahan DR, Maynard C, Bush KR, Davis TM, Bradley KA. Posttraumatic stress disorder in female veterans: association with self-reported health problems and functional impairment. Arch Intern Med. 2001;164:394–400.
   Google Scholar
• US Department of Veterans Affairs. Women Veterans: Past, Present and Future. Washington, DC: US Department of Veterans Affairs; 2007.
   Google Scholar