The renin-angiotensin-system and left ventricular mass in young adults: the African-PREDICT study

References

• Schmieder RE, Hilgers KF, Schlaich MP, et al. Renin-angiotensin system and cardiovascular risk. Lancet. 2007;369:1208–1219.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mehta PK, Griendling KK. Angiotensin II cell signaling: physiological and pathological effects in the cardiovascular system. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2007;292:C82–C97.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Atlas SA. The renin-angiotensin aldosterone system: pathophysiological role and pharmacologic inhibition. J Manag Care Pharm. 2007;13:9–20.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cowan BR, Young AA. Left ventricular hypertrophy and renin-angiotensin system blockade. Curr Hypertens Rep. 2009;11:167–172.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jia G, Aroor AR, Hill MA, et al. Role of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system activation in promoting cardiovascular fibrosis and stiffness. Hypertens. 2018;72:537–548.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferrario CM. Cardiac remodelling and RAS inhibition. Ther Adv Cardiovasc Dis. 2016;10:162–171.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• James GD, Sealey JE, Muller F, et al. Renin relationship to sex, race and age in a normotensive population. Int J Hypertens. 1986; 4:S387–S399.
   Google Scholar
• Swart R, van Rooyen JM, Mels CMC. Change in renin, cardiovascular and inflammatory markers over three years in a black and white population: the SABPA study. BMC Cardiovasc Disord. 2017;17:104–111.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Rooyen JM, Poglitsch M, Huisman HW, et al. Quantification of systemic renin-angiotensin system peptides of hypertensive black and white African men established from the RAS-Fingerprint®. J Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone Syst. 2016;17:1470320316669880.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sagnella GA. Why is plasma renin activity lower in populations of African origin? J Hum Hypertens. 2001;15:17–25.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Rooyen JM, Schutte AE, Huisman HW, et al. End-organ damage in urbanized Africans with low plasma renin levels: the SABPA study. Clin Exp Hypertens. 2014;36:70–75.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Capingana DP, Magalhães P, Silva ABT, et al. Prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors and socioeconomic level among public-sector workers in Angola. BMC Public Health. 2013;13:732–738.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodriguez CJ, Sciacca RR, Diez-Roux AV, et al. Relation between socioeconomic status, race–ethnicity, and left ventricular mass. Hypertens. 2004;43:775–779.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stats SA. Poverty on the rise in South Africa. 2017 [accessed 2019 Sep]. Available from: http://wwwstatssagovza/?p=10334
   Google Scholar
• Callander EJ, McDermott R. Measuring the effects of CVD interventions and studies across socioeconomic groups: a brief review. Int J Cardiol. 2017; 227:635–643.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosengren A, Smyth A, Rangarajan S, et al. Socioeconomic status and risk of cardiovascular disease in 20 low-income, middle-income, and high-income countries: the Prospective Urban Rural Epidemiologic (PURE) study. Lancet Glob Health. 2019; 7:748–760.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schultz WM, Kelli HM, Lisko JC, et al. Socioeconomic status and cardiovascular outcomes: challenges and interventions. Circulation. 2018;137:2166–2178.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stats SA. Youth graduate unemployment rate increases in quarter 1 of 2019. 2019 [accessed 2019 Oct]. http://wwwstatssagovza/?p=12121
   Google Scholar
• Schutte AE, Gona PN, Delles C, et al. The African Prospective study on the Early Detection and Identification of Cardiovascular disease and Hypertension (African-PREDICT): design, recruitment and initial examination. Eur J Prev Cardiol. 2019;26:458–470.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mansia G, De Backer G, Dominiczak A, et al. 2007 ESH-ESC guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension: the task force for the management of arterial hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH) and of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Blood Press. 2007;16:135–232.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patro B, Jeyashree K, Gupta P. Kuppuswamy’s Socioeconomic Status Scale 2010-the need for periodic revision. Indian J Pediatr. 2012;79:395–396.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marfell-Jones M, Stewart A, de Ridder J. International standards for anthropometric assessment. Wellington (New Zealand): International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry; 2012.
   Google Scholar
• Mosteller RD. Simplified calculation of body-surface area. N Engl J Med. 1987;317:1098.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brage S, Brage N, Franks PW, et al. Reliability and validity of the combined heart rate and movement sensor Actiheart. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2005;59:561–570.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barreira T, Kang M, Caputo J, et al. Validation of the Actiheart monitor for the measurement of physical activity. Int J Exerc Sci. 2009; 2:1–12.
   Google Scholar
• Morrin NM, Stone MR, Henderson KJ. Reproducibility of 24-h ambulatory blood pressure and measures of autonomic function. Blood Press Monit. 2017;22:169–172.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Imholz B, Wieling W, van Montfrans G, et al. Fifteen years experience with finger arterial pressure monitoring: assessment of the technology. Cardiovasc Res. 1998;38:605–616.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guelen I, Westerhof B, van der Sar G, et al. Validation of brachial artery pressure reconstruction from finger arterial pressure. J Hypertens. 2008;26:1321–1327.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schutte A, Huisman H, van Rooyen J, et al. Validation of the Finometer device for measurement of blood pressure in black women. J Hum Hypertens. 2004;18:79–84.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hill LK, Sollers Iii JJ, Thayer JF. Resistance reconstructed estimation of total peripheral resistance from computationally derived cardiac output. Biomed Sci Instrum. 2013; 49:216–223.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lang RM, Badano LP, Mor-Avi V, et al. Recommendations for cardiac chamber quantification by echocardiography in adults: an update from the American Society of Echocardiography and the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2015;28:1–39.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nagueh SF, Smiseth OA, Appleton CP, et al. Recommendations for the evaluation of left ventricular diastolic function by echocardiography: an update from the American Society of Echocardiography and the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2016;29:277–314.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Devereux RB, Alonso DR, Lutas EM, et al. Echocardiographic assessment of left ventricular hypertrophy: comparison to necropsy findings. Am J Cardiol. 1986;57:450–458.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell N, Cappuccio F, Hennis A, et al. Protocol for population level sodium determination in 24-hour urine samples. 2010.
   Google Scholar
• Pavo N, Goliasch G, Wurm R, et al. Low- and high-renin heart failure phenotypes with clinical implications. Clin Chem. 2018;64:597–608.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swanepoel B, Schutte A, Cockeran M, et al. Sodium and potassium intake in South Africa: an evaluation of 24-hour urine collections in a white, black, and Indian population. J Am Soc Hypertens. 2016;10:829–837.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levey AS, Stevens LA. Estimating GFR using the CKD Epidemiology Collaboration (CKD-EPI) creatinine equation: more accurate GFR estimates, lower CKD prevalence estimates, and better risk predictions. Am J Kidney Dis. 2010;55:622–627.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patel S, Rauf A, Khan H, et al. Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone (RAAS): the ubiquitous system for homeostasis and pathologies. Biomed Pharmacother. 2017; 94:317–325.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ha SK. Dietary salt intake and hypertension. Electrolyte Blood Press. 2014;12:7–18.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Murro DG, Beavers M, Harshfield GA, et al. Aldosterone contributes to elevated left ventricular mass in black boys. Pediatr Nephrol. 2013;28:655–660.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonzalez A, Ravassa S, Lopez B, et al. Myocardial remodeling in hypertension. Hypertens. 2018;72:549–558.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen S, Doyle W, Baum A. Socioeconomic status is associated with stress hormones. Psychosom Med. 2006;68:414–420.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castro-Diehl C, Diez Roux AV, Seeman T, et al. Associations of socioeconomic and psychosocial factors with urinary measures of cortisol and catecholamines in the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA). Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2014;41:132–141.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duprez D, De Buyzere M, Paelinck M, et al. Relationship between left ventricular mass index and 24-h urinary free cortisol and cortisone in essential arterial hypertension. J Hypertens. 1999; 17:1583–1588.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu CF, Gu YT, Wang HY, et al. Gamma-glutamyltransferase level and risk of hypertension: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2012;7:e48878.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schutte AE, Schutte R, Huisman HW, et al. Are behavioural risk factors to be blamed for the conversion from optimal blood pressure to hypertensive status in black South Africans? A 5-year prospective study. Int J Epidemiol. 2012;41:1114–1123.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ujihara I, Hitomi S, Ono K, et al. The ethanol metabolite acetaldehyde induces water and salt intake via two distinct pathways in the central nervous system of rats. Neuropharmacology. 2015; 99:589–599.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cook NR, Obarzanek E, Cutler JA, et al.; Trials of Hypertension Prevention Collaborative Research Group. Joint effects of sodium and potassium intake on subsequent cardiovascular disease: the trials of hypertension prevention follow-up study. Arch Intern Med. 2009;169:32–40.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frohlich ED, Varagic J. The role of sodium in hypertension is more complex than simply elevating arterial pressure. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2004;1:24–30.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meneton P, Jeunemaitre X, de Wardener HE, et al. Links between dietary salt intake, renal salt handling, blood pressure, and cardiovascular diseases. Physiol Rev. 2005;85:679–715.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leng B, Jin Y, Li G, et al. Socioeconomic status and hypertension: a meta-analysis. J Hypertens. 2015;33:221–229.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Darmon N, Drewnowski A. Does social class predict diet quality? Am J Clin Nutr. 2008;87:1107–1117.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar