136
Views
16
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Sex differences in schizophrenia: A review

Pages 37-45 | Published online: 12 Jul 2009

REFERENCES

  • Cullberg J. A three-dimensional aetiological view of the schizophrenias. II. Hypothetical clinical consequences. Nord J Psychiatry 1993;47:421–4.
  • Castle DJ, Wessely S, Murray RM. Sex and schizophrenia: effects of diagnostic stringency, and associations with premor-bid variables. Br J Psychiatry 1993;162:658–64.
  • Castle DJ, Murray RM. The neurodevelopmental basis of sex differences in schizophrenia. Psychol Med 1991;21:565–75.
  • Jablensky A, Sartorius N, Emberg G, Anker M, Korten A, Cooper JE, et al. Schizophrenia: manifestations, incidence and course in different cultures. A World Health Organization ten-country study. Psychol Med Monograph Suppl 1992;20:1–97.
  • Iacono WG, Beiser M. Are males more likely than females to develop schizophrenia? Am J Psychiatry 1992;149:1070–4.
  • Bardenstein KK, McGlashan TH. Gender differences in affec-tive, schizoaffective, and schizophrenic disorders. A review. Schizophr Res 1990;3:159–72.
  • Cooper JE, Goodhead D, Craig T, Harris M, Howat J, Korer J. The incidence of schizophrenia in Nottingham. Br J Psychi-atry 1987;151:619–26.
  • Sartorius N, Jablensky A, Korten A, Ernberg G, Anker M, Cooper JE, et al. Early manifestations and firstcontact inci-dence of schizophrenia in different cultures. Psychol Med 1986;16:909–28.
  • Lewine RRJ, Burbach D, Meltzer HY. Effect of diagnostic criteria on the ratio of male to female schizophrenic patients. Am J Psychiatry 1984;141:84–7.
  • Lewis S. Sex and schizophrenia: vive la difference. Br J Psy-chiatry 1992;161:445–50.
  • Navarro F, van Os J, Jones P, Murray R. Explaining sex differences in course and outcome in the functional psychoses. Schizophr Res 1996;21:161–70.
  • Feighner JP, Robins E, Guze SB, Woodruff A Jr, Winokur G, Munoz R. Diagnostic criteria for use in psychiatric re-search. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1972;26:57–63.
  • Pakaslahti A. A prediction of working disability in schizophrenia. Helsinki: Publications of the Social Insurance Institution, Finland. 1992;ML:119;91.
  • Lehtinen V, Joukamaa M, Lahtela K, Raitasalo R, Jyrkinen E, Maatela J, et al. Prevalence of mental disorders among adults in Finland: basic results from the Mini Finland Health Survey. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1990;81:418–25.
  • Youseff HA, Kinsella A, Waddington JL. Evidence for geo-graphical variations in the prevalence of schizophrenia in rural Ireland. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991;48:254–8.
  • Kendler KS, Walsh D. Gender and schizophrenia. Results of an epidemiologically-based family study. Br J Psychiatry 1995;167:184–92.
  • Goldstein JM. The impact of gender on understanding the epidemiology of schizophrenia. In: Seeman MV, editor. Gen-der and psychopathology. Washington (DC): American Psy-chiatric Press; 1995.
  • Robins LN, Helzer JE, Weissman MM, Orvaschel H, Gruen-berg E, Burke JD, et al. Lifetime prevalence of specific psy-chiatric disorders in three sites. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1984;41:949–58.
  • Wyatt RJ, Alexander R, Egan M, Kirch DG. Schizophrenia, just the facts: what we know, how well do we know it? Schizophr Res 1988;1:3–18.
  • De Salvia D, Barbato A, Salvo P, Zadro F. Prevalence and incidence of schizophrenic disorders in Portoguaro. An Italian case registry study. J Nerv Ment Dis 1993;181:275–82.
  • Salokangas RK. First contact rate for schizophrenia in com-munity psychiatric care. Consideration of the oestrogen hy-pothesis. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1993;242:337–46.
  • Häfner H. Epidemiology of schizophrenia. In: Häfner H, Gat-taz WF, Janzarik W, editors. Search for the causes of schizophrenia. Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag; 1987. p. 66–9.
  • Bellodi L, Bussoleni C, Scorza-Smeraldi R, Grassi G, Zac-chetti L, Smeraldi E. Family study of schizophrenia: ex-ploratory analysis for relevant factors. Schizophr Bull 1986;12:120–8.
  • Goldstein JM, Faraone SV, Chen WJ, Tolomiczencko GS, Tsuang MT. Sex differences in the familial transmission of schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 1990;156:819–26.
  • Sham PC, Jones P, Russell A, Gilvarry K, Bebbington P, Lewis S, et al. Age at onset, sex, and familial psychiatric morbidity in schizophrenia. Camberwell Collaborative Psycho-sis Study. Br J Psychiatry 1994;165:466–73.
  • Kringlen E. Contribution of genetic studies on schizophrenia. In: Häfner H, Gattaz WF, Janzarik W, editors. Search for the causes of schizophrenia. Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag; 1987. p. 123–43.
  • Lewis SW, Owen MJ, Murray RM. Obstetric complications in schizophrenia: methodology and mechanisms. In: Schulz SC, Tammings CA, editors. Schizophrenia: scientific progress. New York: Oxford University Press; 1989. p. 56–8.
  • Eagles JM, Gibson I, Bremner MH, Clunie F, Ebmeier KP, Smith NC. Obstetric complications in DSM-III schizophrenics and their siblings. Lancet 1990;335:1139–41.
  • McNeil TF. Obstetric complications in schizophrenic parents. Schizophr Res 1991;5:89–101.
  • Cannon TD, Mednick SA, Parnas J, Schulsinger F, Praestholm J, Vestergaard A. Developmental brain abnormali-ties in the offspring of schizophrenic mothers. I. Contributions of genetic and perinatal factors. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1993;50:551–64.
  • McNeil TF, Cantor-Graae E, Torrey EF, Sjostrom K, Bowler A, Taylor E, et al. Obstetric complications in histories of monotsygotic twins discordant and concordant for schizophre-nia. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1994;89:196–204.
  • Jones P, Rantakallio P, Hartikainen A-L, Isohanni M, Sipild P. Schizophrenia as a long-term outcome of pregnancy, deliv-ery, and perinatal complications: a 28-year follow-up of the 1966 North Finland general population birth cohort. Am J Psychiatry 1998;155: 355–64.
  • Kendell RE, Juszczak E, Cole SK. Obstetric complications and schizophrenia: a case control study based on standardised obstetric records. Br J Psychiatry 1996;168:556–61.
  • Rosanoff AJ, Handy LM, Plesset IR. The etiology of so-called schizophrenic psychoses: with special reference to their occurrence in twins. Am J Psychiatry 1934;91:247–86.
  • Seeman MV, Lang M. The role of estrogens in schizophrenia gender differences. Schizophr Bull 1990;16:185–94.
  • Castle DJ, Abel K, Takei N, Murray RM. Gender differences in schizophrenia: hormonal effect or subtypes? Schizophr Bull 1995;21:1–12.
  • Cantor-Graae E, McNeil TF, Rickler KC, Sjostrom K, Rawl-ings R, Higgins ES, et al. Are neurological abnormalities in well discordant monotsygotic co-twins of schizophrenic sub-jects the result of perinatal trauma? Am J Psychiatry 1994;151:1194–9.
  • Flaum M, Arndt S, Andreasen NC. The role of gender in studies of ventricle enlargement in schizophrenia: a predomi-nantly male effect. Am J Psychiatry 1990;147:1327–32.
  • Jablensky A. The epidemiology of schizophrenia. Curr Opin Psychiatry 1993;6:43–52.
  • Flor-Henry P. Influence of gender in schizophrenia as related to other psychopathological syndromes. Schizophr Bull 1990;16:211–27.
  • Lewine RRJ, Gulley LR, Risch SC, Jewart R, Houpt JL. Sexual dimorphism, brain morphology, and schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 1990;16:195–203.
  • Andreasen NC, Swayze VW II, Flaum M, Yates WR, Arndt S, McChesney C. Ventricular enlargement in schizophrenia evaluated with computed tomographic scanning. Effects of gender, age, and stage of illness. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1990;47:1008–15.
  • Chua SE, McKenna PJ. Schizophrenia--a brain disease? A critical review of structural and functional cerebral abnormal-ity in the disorder. Br J Psychiatry 1995;166:563–82.
  • Nopoulos P, Flaum M, Andreasen NC. Sex differences in brain morphology in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1997;154:1648–54.
  • Lawrie SM, Abukmeil SS. Brain abnormality in schizophre-nia. A systematic and quantitative review of volumetric mag-netic resonance imaging studies. Br J Psychiatry 1998;172:110–20.
  • Nasrallah HA, Schwarzkopf SB, Olson SC, Coffman JA. Gender differences in schizophrenia on MRI brain scans. Schizophr Bull 1990;16:205–10.
  • Gur RE, Mozley PD, Shtasel DL, Cannon TD, Gallacher F, Turetsky B, et al. Clinical subtypes of schizophrenia: differ-ences in brain and CSF volume. Am J Psychiatry 1994;151:343–50.
  • Cowell PE, Kostianovsky DJ, Gur RC, Turetsky BI, Gur RE. Sex differences in neuroanatomical and clinical correlations in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1996;153:799–805.
  • McGlone J. Sex differences in human brain asymmetry: a critical survey. Behav Brain Sci 1980;3:215–63.
  • Reite M, Teale P, Goldstein L, Whalen J, Linnville S. Late auditory magnetic sources may differ in the left hemisphere of schizophrenic patients. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1989;46:565–72.
  • Petty RG, Barta PE, Pearlson GD, McGilchrist IK, Lewis RW, Tien AY, et al. Reversal of asymmetry of the planum temporale in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1995;152:715–21.
  • Reite M, Sheeder J, Teale P, Adams M, Richardson D, Si-mon J, et al. Magnetic source imaging evidence of sex differ-ences in cerebral lateralization in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1997;54:433–40.
  • Szymanski S, Lieberman JA, Alvir JM, Mayerhoff D, Loebel A, Geisler S, et al. Gender differences in onset of illness, treatment response, course, and biologic indexes in first-episode schizophrenic patients. Am J Psychiatry 1995;152:698–703.
  • Seeman MV. Interaction of sex, age and neuroleptic dose. Compr Psychiatry 1983;24:125–8.
  • Häfner H, Riecher-Rössler A, An Der Heiden W, Maurer K, Fdtkenheuer B, Löffier W. Generating and testing a causal explanation of the gender difference in age at first onset of schizophrenia. Psychol Med 1993b;23:925–40.
  • Kulkarni J, De Castella A, Smith D, Taffe J, Keks N, Co-polov D. A clinical trial of the effects of estrogen in acutely psychotic women. Schizophr Res 1996;20:247–52.
  • Seeman MV. Current outcome in schizophrenia: women vs men. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1986;73:609–17.
  • Young MA, Meltzer HY. The relationship of demographic, clinical and outcome variables to neuroleptic treatment re-quirements. Schizophr Bull. 1980;6:88–101.
  • Salokangas RKR. Gender and the use of neuroleptics in schizophrenia. Further testing of the oestrogen hypothesis. Schizophr Res 1995;16:7–16.
  • Salokangas RKR, Saarijärvi S, Taiminen T, Lehto H, Niemi H, Ahola V, et al. Effect of smoking on neuroleptics in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 1997;23:55–60.
  • Jones P, Rodgers B, Murray R, Marmot M. Child develop-mental risk factors for adult schizophrenia in the British 1946 birth cohort. Lancet 1994;344:1398–402.
  • Berenbaum H, Fujita F. Schizophrenia and personality: ex-ploring the boundaries and connections between vulnerability and outcome. J Abnorm Psychol 1994;103:148–58.
  • Walker E, Lewine RJ. Prediction of adult-onset schizophrenia from childhood home movies of the patients. Am J Psychiatry 1990;147:1052–6.
  • Walker EF, Crimbs KE, Davis DM, Smith AJ. Childhood precursors of schizophrenia: facial expressions of emotion. Am J Psychiatry 1993;150:1654–60.
  • Done DJ, Crow TJ, Johnstone EC, Sacker A. Childhood an-tecedents of schizophrenia and affective illness: social adjust-ment at ages 7 and 11. BMJ 1994;309:699–703.
  • Childers SE, Harding CM. Gender, premorbid social function-ing, and long-term outcome in DSM-III schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 1990;16:309–18.
  • Salokangas RK, Stengard E. Gender and short-term outcome in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 1990;3:333–5.
  • Foerster A, Lewis S, Owen M, Murray R. Pre-morbid adjust-ment and personality in psychosis effects of sex and diagnosis. Br J Psychiatry 1991;158:171–6.
  • Cadoret RJ, Cain C. Sex differences in predictors of antisocial behavior in adoptees. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1980;37:1171–5.
  • Odegard 0. Hospitalized psychoses in Norway: time trends 1926–1965. Soc Psychiatry 1971;6: 53–8.
  • Seeman MV. Sex and schizophrenia. Can J Psychiatry 1985;30:313–5.
  • Davis JA, Goldstein MJ, Nuechterlein KH. Gender differ-ences in family attitudes about schizophrenia. Psychol Med 1996;26:689–96.
  • Goldstein JM, Tsuang MT. Gender and schizophrenia: an in-troduction and synthesis of findings. Schizophr Bull 1990;16:179–83.
  • Vaughn C, Snyder K, Jones S, Freeman W, Falloon I. Family factors in schizophrenic relapse. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1984;41:1169–77.
  • Hogarty G. Expressed emotion and schizophrenic relapse: Im-plications from the Pittsburgh study. In: Alpert M, editor. Controversies in schizophrenia. New York: Guilford Press; 1985. p. 345–63.
  • Kohn M. The interaction of social class and other factors in the etiology of schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1976;133:177–80.
  • Stenbäck A, Achte KA. Hospital first admissions and social class. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1966;42:113–24.
  • Faris REL, Dunham HW. Mental disorders in urban areas: an ecological study on schizophrenia and other psychoses. Chicago: University of Chicago Press; 1939.
  • Mdkikyro T, Isohanni M, Moring J, Oja H, Hakko H, Jones P, et al. Is a child's risk of early onset schizophrenia increased in the highest social class? Schizophr Res 1997;23:245–52.
  • Salokangas R. Skitsofreniaan sairastuneiden psykososiaalinen kehitys. Turku: Kansaneldkelaitoksen julkaisuja; 1977. AL 7/ 1977.
  • Andia AM, Zisook S, Heaton RK, Hesselink J, Jernigan T, Kuck J, et al. Gender differences in schizophrenia. J Nerv Ment Dis 1995;183:522–8.
  • Salokangas RKR. Skitsofrenian hoito ja ennuste: jälki-tutkimus psykoterapeuttista yksilohoitoa saaneiden skitsofre-niapotilaiden psykososiaalisesta ennusteesta. Tampere: Kansanterveystieteen julkaisuja; 1985. M 89.
  • Riecher A, Maurer K, Löffier W, Fdtkenheuer B, An Der Heiden W, Häfner H. Schizophrenia-disease of young single males? Eur Arch Psychiatry Neurol 1989;239:210–2.
  • Salokangas RKR. Living situation and social network in schizophrenia. A prospective 5-year follow-up study. Nord J Psychiatry 1996;50:35–42.
  • Salokangas R. Prognostic implications of the sex of schizophrenic patients. Br J Psychiatry 1983;142:145–51.
  • Häfner H, Maurer K, Löffier W, Riecher-Rössler A. The infl-uence of age and sex on the onset and early course of schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 1993;162:80–6.
  • Bleuler E. Dementia praecox of the group of schizophrenias (Original work published in 1911). New York: International Universities Press; 1950.
  • Angermeyer ML, Kuhn L. Gender differences in age at onset of schizophrenia. Eur Arch Psychiatr Neurol Sci 1988;237:351–64.
  • Goldstein JM, Tsuang MT, Faraone SV. Gender and schizophrenia: implications for understanding the heterogene-ity of the illness. Psychiatr Res 1989;28:243–53.
  • Häfner H, Riecher A, Maurer K, Loffier W, Munk-Jorgensen P, Stromgren E. How does gender influence age at first hospi-talization for schizophrenia? A transnational case register study. Psychol Med 1989;19:903–18.
  • Lieberman J, Jody D, Geisler S, Alvir J, Loebel A, Szymanski S, et al. Time course and biologic correlates of treatment response in first-episode schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1993;50:369–76.
  • Maurer K, Häfner H. Methodological aspects of onset assess-ment in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 1995;15:265–76.
  • Faraone SV, Chen WJ, Goldstein JM, Tsuang MT. Gender differences in age at onset of schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 1994;164:625–9.
  • Jablensky A, Cole SW. Is the earlier age at onset of schizophrenia in males a confounded finding? Results from a cross-cultural investigation. Br J Psychiatry 1997;170:234–40.
  • Häfner H, Behrens S, de Vry J, Gattaz WF. An animal model for the effects of estradiol on dopamine-mediated behaviour: implications for sex differences in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res 1991;38:125–34.
  • Beratis S, Gabriel J, Hoidas S. Age at onset in subtypes of schizophrenic disorders. Schizophr Bull 1994;20:287–96.
  • Gorwood P, Leboyer M, Jay M, Payan C, Feingold J. Gen-der and age at onset in schizophrenia: impact of family his-tory. Am J Psychiatry 1995;152:208–12.
  • Lewine R. Schizophrenia: an amotivational syndrome in men. Can J Psychiatry 1985;30:316–8.
  • Goldstein JM, Link BG. Gender and the expression of schizophrenia. J Psychiatr Res 1988;145:684–9.
  • Gur RE, Petty RG, Turetsky BI, Gur RC. Schizophrenia throughout life: sex differences in severity and profile of symptoms. Schizophr Res 1996;21:1–12.
  • Copolov DL, McGorry PD, Singh BS, Proeve M, Van Riel R. The influence of gender on the classification of psychotic disorders--a multidiagnostic approach. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1990;82:8–13.
  • Tiihonen J, Isohanni M, Rdsdnen P, Koiranen M, Moring J. Specific major mental disorders and criminality: a 26-year prospective study of the 1966 Northern Finland birth cohort. Am J Psychiatry 1997;154: 840–5.
  • Fennig S, Putnam K, Bromet EJ, Galambos N. Gender, pre-morbid characteristics and negative symptoms in schizophre-nia. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1995;92:173–7.
  • Vazquez-Barquero JL, Cuesta Nunez MJ, Herrera Castanedo S, Diez Manrique JF, Pardo G, Dunn G. Sociodemographic and clinical variables as predictors of the diagnostic character-istics of first episodes of schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1996;94:149–55.
  • Aylward E, Walker E, Bettes B. Intelligence in schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 1984;10:430–59.
  • Bilder R, Lipschute-Broch L, Reiter G, Geisler S, Mayerhoff D, Lieberman J. Intellectual deficits in first episode schizophrenia: evidence for progressive deterioration. Schizophr Bull 1992;18:437–48.
  • Lewine RRJ, Walker EF, Shurett R, Caudle J, Haden C. Sex differences in neuropsychological functioning among schizophrenic patients. Am J Psychiatry 1996;153:1178–84.
  • Goldberg TE, Gold JM, Torrey EF, Weinberger DR. Lack of sex differences in the neuropsychological performance of pa-tients with schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1995;152:883–8.
  • Perry W, Moore D, Braff D. Gender differences on thought disturbance measures among schizophrenic patients. Am J Psychiatry 1995;152:1298–301.
  • Angermeyer ML, Kuhn L, Goldstein JM. Gender and the course of schizophrenia: differences in treated outcomes. Schizophr Bull 1990;16:293–307.
  • Goldstein JM. Gender differences in the course of schizophre-nia. Am J Psychiatry 1988;145:684–9.
  • Harding CM, Brooks GW, Ashikaga T, Strauss JS, Breier A. The Vermont Longitudinal Study of Persons With Severe Mental Illness. I. Methodology, study sample, and overall status 32 years later. Am J Psychiatry 1987;144: 718–26.
  • McGlashan TH, Bardenstein KK. Gender differences in affec-tive, schizoaffective, and schizophrenic disorders. Schizophr Bull 1990;16:319–29.
  • Mortensen PB, Eaton WW. Predictors of readmission risk in schizophrenia. Psychol Med 1994;24:223–32.
  • Harding CM, Hall GM. Long-term outcome studies of schizophrenia: do females continue to display better outcome as expected? Int Rev Psychiatry 1997;9:409–18.
  • Angermeyer MC, Goldstein JM, Kuhn L. Gender differences in schizophrenia: rehospitalization and community survival. Psychol Med 1989;19:365–82.
  • Goldstein JM, Kreisman D. Gender, family environment, and schizophrenia. Psychol Med 1988;18:861–72.
  • Kuusi K. Skitsofreenisten psykoosien ennuste Helsingissä 1975–1983. Monogr Psychiatr Fenn 1986; No. 13.
  • McCarrick AK, Rosenstein MJ, Milazzo-Sayre LJ, Mander-scheid RW. National trends in use of psychotherapy in psy-chiatric inpatient settings. Hosp Community Psychiatry 1988;39:835–41.
  • Baldessarini RJ, Kando JC, Centorrino F. Hospital use of antipsychotic agents in 1989 and 1993: stable dosing with de-creased length of stay. Am J Psychiatry 1995;152: 1038–44.
  • Hogarty GE, Goldberg SL, Schooler NR. Drug and socio-therapy in the aftercare of schizophrenic patients. III. Adjust-ment of nonrelapsed patients. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1974;31:609–18.
  • Hogarty GE, Goldberg SL, Schooler NR, Weinrich RF. Drug and sociotherapy in the aftercare of schizophrenic patients. II. Two-year relapse rates. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1974;31:603–8.
  • Fogel BS, Schiffer RB, Rao SM. Neuropsychiatry. Philadel-phia: Williams & Wilkins; 1996.
  • Yassa R, Jeste DV. Gender differences in tardive dyskinesia: a critical review of the literature. Schizophr Bull 1992;18:701–15.
  • Swett C. Drug-induced dystonia. Am J Psychiatry 1975;132:532–4.
  • Zito JM, Rout WW, Mitchell JE, Roering JL. Clinical char-acteristics of hospitalized psychotic patients who refuse an-tipsychotic drug therapy. Am J Psychiatry 1985;142:822–6.
  • Spencer JH, Glick ID, Haas GL, Clarkin JF, Lewis AB, Pey-ser J, et al. A randomized clinical trial of inpatient family intervention. III. Effects at 6-month and 18-month follow-ups. Am J Psychiatry 1988;145: 1115–21.
  • Haas GL, Glick ID, Clarkin JF, Spencer JH, Lewis AB. Gen-der and schizophrenia outcome: a clinical trial of an inpatient family intervention. Schizophr Bull 1990;16:277–92.
  • Harris EC, Barraclough B. Excess mortality of mental disor-der. Br J Psychiatry 1998;173:11–53.
  • Brown S. Excess mortality of schizophrenia. A meta analysis. Br J Psychiatry 1997;171:502–8.
  • Allebeck P. Schizophrenia: a life-shortening disease. Schizophr Bull 1989;15:81–9.
  • Tabbane K, Joober R, Spadone C, Poirier MF, Olie JP. Mor-tality and cause of death in schizophrenia. Review of the literature. Encephale 1993;19:23–8.
  • Rdsdnen P, Tiihonen J, Isohanni M, Moring J, Koiranen M. Juvenile mortality, mental disturbances and criminality: a prospective study of the Northern Finland 1966 birth cohort. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1997;97: 5–9.
  • Breier A, Astrachan BM. Characteristics of schizophrenic pa-tients who commit suicide. Am J Psychiatry 1984;141:206–9.
  • Mortensen PB, Juel K. Mortality and causes of death in first admitted schizophrenic patients. Br J Psychiatry 1993;163:183–9.
  • Allebeck P, Varla A, Kristjansson E, Wistedt B. Risk factors for suicide among patients with schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1987;76:414–9.
  • Crow TJ. Is schizophrenia the price that Homo sapiens pays for language? Schizophr Res 1997;28:127–41.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.