Publication Cover
Australian Journal of Earth Sciences
An International Geoscience Journal of the Geological Society of Australia
Volume 71, 2024 - Issue 5
1,103
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

3D modelling of subsurface ancient volcanic successions: a workflow developed during regional reconstructions of the Cowal Igneous Complex in the Ordovician Macquarie Arc of NSW, Australia

ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon & ORCID Icon
Pages 699-720 | Received 01 Mar 2024, Accepted 13 May 2024, Published online: 16 Jun 2024

References

  • Allen, R. L. (1988). False pyroclastic textures in altered silicic lavas, with implications for volcanic-associated mineralization. Economic Geology, 83(7), 1424–1446. https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.83.7.1424
  • Allen, R. L., Lundstrom, I., Ripa, M., & Christofferson, H. (1996). Facies analysis of a 1.9 Ga, continental margin, back-arc, felsic caldera province with diverse Zn–Pb–Ag–(Cu–Au) sulfide and Fe oxide deposits, Bergslagen region, Sweden. Economic Geology, 91(6), 979–1008. https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.91.6.979
  • Allen, S. R., Hayward, B. W., & Mathews, E. (2007). A facies model for a submarine volcaniclastic apron: The Miocene Manukau Subgroup, New Zealand. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 119(5-6), 725–742. https://doi.org/10.1130/B26066.1
  • Barker, A., Milojkovic, T., Fredericksen, D., Reid, B., & Biggam, J. (2019). Cowal—11 MOz and growing. AIG Bulletin, Discoveries in the Tasmanides, 69, 19. https://www.aig.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/Barker_Cowal.pdf
  • Barron, L. M. (1999). Metamorphism. In N. S. Meakin & E. J. Morgan (Eds.), Dubbo 1:250 000 Geological Sheet SI/55—4 (2nd ed., pp. 393–395). Geological Survey of New South Wales.
  • Bellefleur, G., Malinowski, M., & Urosevic, M. (2019). Editorial for special issue “Seismic methods in mineral exploration”. Minerals, 9(10), 630. https://doi.org/10.3390/min9100630
  • Berkman, D. A. (2001). Field geologists’ manual (Fourth Edition). The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Monograph 9.
  • Blackwell, J. L., Cooke, D. R., McPhie, J., & Simpson, K. A. (2014). Lithofacies associations and evolution of the volcanic host succession to the Minifie Ore Zone: Ladolam Gold Deposit, Lihir Island, Papua New Guinea. Economic Geology, 109(4), 1137–1160. https://doi.org/10.2113/econgeo.109.4.1137
  • Boger, S. D., & Miller, J. M. (2004). Terminal suturing of Gondwana and the onset of the Ross–Delamerian Orogeny: The cause and effect of an Early Cambrian reconfiguration of plate motions. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 219(1-2), 35–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0012-821X(03)00692-7
  • Branney, M. J., & Kokelaar, B. P. (2002). Pyroclastic density currents and the sedimentation of ignimbrites. Geological Society of London, Memoir 27.
  • Campbell, I. H., & Hill, R. I. (1988). A two-stage model for the formation of the granite-greenstone terrains of the Kalgoorlie-Norseman area, Western Australia. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 90(1), 11–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-821X(88)90107-0
  • Cannell, J. (2003). Lithological units of the E42 deposit, description, classification and depositional setting [Unpublished internal report]. Barrick Gold of Australia.
  • Carey, S. N., & Schneider, J-L. (2011). Chapter 7—Volcaniclastic processes and deposits in the deep-sea. In H. HüNeke & T. Mulder (Eds.), Developments in sedimentology (Vol. 63, pp. 457–515). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-53000-4.00007-X
  • Cas, R. (1983). A review of the palaeogeographic and tectonic development of the palaeozoic Lachlan Fold Belt of southeastern Australia. Geological Society of Australia. Special Publication 10.
  • Cas, R., Giordano, G., Balsamo, F., Esposito, A., & Mastro, S. L. (2011). Hydrothermal breccia textures and processes: Lisca Bianca Islet, Panarea Volcano, Aeolian Islands, Italy. Economic Geology, 106(3), 437–450. https://doi.org/10.2113/econgeo.106.3.437
  • Cas, R. A. F., Porritt, L., Pittari, A., & Hayman, P. C. (2009). A practical guide to terminology for kimberlite facies: A systematic progression from descriptive to genetic, including a pocket guide. Lithos, 112, 183–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2009.03.051
  • Cas, R. A. F., Powell, C. M., & Crook, K. A. W. (1980). Ordovician palaeogeography of the Lachlan Fold Belt: A modern analogue and tectonic constraints. Journal of the Geological Society of Australia, 27(1-2), 19–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/00167618008729115
  • Cas, R. A. F., & Wright, J. V. (1987). Volcanic successions modern and ancient: A geological approach to processes, products and successions. Allen & Unwin.
  • Catuneanu, O. (2020). Chapter 23—Sequence stratigraphy. In N. Scarselli, J. Adam, D. Chiarella, D. G. Roberts, & A. W. Bally (Eds.), Regional geology and tectonics (2nd ed., pp. 605–686). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-64134-2.00021-3
  • Chattopadhyay, A., Plantinga, S., & Vegter, G. (2012). Certified meshing of radial basis function based isosurfaces. The Visual Computer, 28(5), 445–462. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00371-011-0627-2
  • Collins, W. J. (2002). Nature of extensional accretionary orogens. Tectonics, 21(4), 6-1–6-12. https://doi.org/10.1029/2000TC001272
  • Cooke, D. R., Wilson, A. J., House, M. J., Wolfe, R. C., Walshe, J. L., Lickfold, V., & Crawford, A. J. (2007). Alkalic porphyry Au–Cu and associated mineral deposits of the Ordovician to Early Silurian Macquarie Arc, New South Wales. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences, 54(2-3), 445–463. https://doi.org/10.1080/08120090601146771
  • Crawford, A. J., Meffre, S., Squire, R. J., Barron, L. M., & Falloon, T. J. (2007). Middle and Late Ordovician magmatic evolution of the Macquarie Arc, Lachlan Orogen, New South Wales. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences, 54(2-3), 181–214. https://doi.org/10.1080/08120090701227471
  • DeWolfe, Y. M., & Pittman, N. (2018). Subaqueous strombolian eruptions, and eruption-fed pyroclastic deposits in a Paleoproterozoic rifted-arc: Hidden formation, Flin Flon, Canada. Precambrian Research, 316, 48–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2018.07.010
  • Donaire, T., Pascual, E., Sáez, R., & Toscano, M. (2020). Facies architecture and palaeoenvironmental constraints of subaqueous felsic volcanism in the Iberian Pyrite Belt: The Paymogo Volcano-Sedimentary Alignment. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 405, 107045. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2020.107045
  • Doyle, M. G., & Allen, R. (2003). Subsea-floor replacement in volcanic-hosted massive sulfide deposits. Ore Geology Reviews, 23(3-4), 183–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-1368(03)00035-0
  • Emery, D., & Myers, K. (2009). Sequence stratigraphy. John Wiley & Sons.
  • Evolution Mining Ltd. (2024, February 14). Annual Mineral Resources and Ore Reserves Statement as at 31 December 2023. https://evolutionmining.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/2680687-Annual-Mineral-Resources-and-Ore-Reserves-Statement.pdf
  • Fergusson, C. L. (2010). Plate-driven extension and convergence along the East Gondwana active margin: Late Silurian–Middle Devonian tectonics of the Lachlan Fold Belt, southeastern Australia. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences, 57(5), 627–649. https://doi.org/10.1080/08120099.2010.494767
  • Fergusson, C. L. (2017). Mid to late Paleozoic shortening pulses in the Lachlan Orogen, southeastern Australia: A review. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences, 64(1), 1–39. https://doi.org/10.1080/08120099.2017.1273257
  • Fergusson, C. L., & Coney, P. J. (1992). Implications of a Bengal Fan-type deposit in the Paleozoic Lachlan fold belt of southeastern Australia. Geology, 20(11), 1047–1049. https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1992)020<1047:IOABFT>2.3.CO;2
  • Foster, D. A., & Gray, D. R. (2000). Evolution and structure of the Lachlan fold belt (orogen) of eastern Australia. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 28(1), 47–80. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.28.1.47
  • Foster, D. A., Gray, D. R., & Bucher, M. (1999). Chronology of deformation within the turbidite-dominated, Lachlan orogen: Implications for the tectonic evolution of eastern Australia and Gondwana. Tectonics, 18(3), 452–485. https://doi.org/10.1029/1998TC900031
  • Gamberi, F. (2001). Volcanic facies associations in a modern volcaniclastic apron (Lipari and Vulcano offshore, Aeolian Island Arc). Bulletin of Volcanology, 63(4), 264–273. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004450100143
  • Gemmel, B. (2008). Report on the Decoy Prospect, Lake Cowal Region, NSW for Barrick Australia [Internal unpublished Consultant Report]. Barrick Australia.
  • Gifkins, C. C., Herrmann, W., & Large, R. R. (2005). Altered volcanic rocks: A guide to description and interpretation. University of Tasmania. https://figshare.utas.edu.au/articles/book/Altered_volcanic_rocks_a_guide_to_description_and_interpretation/23248787/1
  • Glen, R. A. (2005). The Tasmanides of eastern Australia. In A. P. M. Vaughan, P. T. Leat, & R. J. Pankhurst (Eds.), Terrane processes at the margins of Gondwana (pp. 23–96). Geological Society, London, Special Publications 246. https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2005.246.01.02
  • Glen, R. A. (2013). Refining accretionary orogen models for the Tasmanides of eastern Australia. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences, 60(3), 315–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/08120099.2013.772537
  • Glen, R. A., Korsch, R. J., Direen, N. G., Jones, L. E. A., Johnstone, D. W., Lawrie, K. C., Finlayson, D. M., & Shaw, R. D. (2002). Crustal structure of the Ordovician Macquarie Arc, Eastern Lachlan Orogen, based on seismic-reflection profiling. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences, 49(2), 323–348. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1440-0952.2002.00925.x
  • Glen, R. A., Meffre, S., & Scott, R. J. (2007). Benambran Orogeny in the Eastern Lachlan Orogen, Australia. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences, 54(2-3), 385–415. https://doi.org/10.1080/08120090601147019
  • Glen, R. A., Saeed, A., Quinn, C. D., & Griffin, W. L. (2011). U–Pb and Hf isotope data from zircons in the Macquarie Arc, Lachlan Orogen: Implications for arc evolution and Ordovician palaeogeography along part of the east Gondwana margin. Gondwana Research, 19(3), 670–685. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2010.11.011
  • Glen, R. A., Spencer, R., Willmore, A., David, V., & Scott, R. J. (2007). Junee–Narromine Volcanic Belt, Macquarie Arc, Lachlan Orogen, New South Wales: Components and structure. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences, 54(2-3), 215–241. https://doi.org/10.1080/08120090601146805
  • Gray, D. R., & Gregory, R. T. (2003). Fault geometry as evidence for inversion of a former rift basin in the Eastern Lachlan Orogen. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences, 50(4), 513–523. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1440-0952.2003.01008.x
  • Harris, A. C., Bryan, S. E., & Holcombe, R. J. (2006). Volcanic setting of the Bajo de la Alumbrera Porphyry Cu–Au Deposit, Farallón Negro Volcanics, northwest Argentina. Economic Geology, 101(1), 71–94. https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.101.1.71
  • Harris, A. C., Percival, I. G., Cooke, D. R., Tosdal, R. M., Fox, N., Allen, C. M., Tedder, I., McMillan, C., Dunham, P., & Collett, D. (2014). Marine volcanosedimentary basins hosting porphyry Au–Cu deposits, Cadia Valley, New South Wales, Australia. Economic Geology, 109(4), 1117–1135. https://doi.org/10.2113/econgeo.109.4.1117
  • Henry, A., McInnes, P., & Tosdal, R. M. (2014). Structural evolution of auriferous veins at the Endeavour 42 gold deposit, Cowal mining district, NSW, Australia. Economic Geology, 109(4), 1051–1077. https://doi.org/10.2113/econgeo.109.4.1051
  • Houghton, B. F., & Wilson, C. J. N. (1989). A vesicularity index for pyroclastic deposits. Bulletin of Volcanology, 51(6), 451–462. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01078811
  • Jones, G. J. (1985). The Goonumbla porphyry copper deposits, New South Wales. Economic Geology, 80(3), 591–613. https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.80.3.591
  • Kemp, A. I. S., Blevin, P. L., & Norman, M. D. (2020). A SIMS U–Pb (zircon) and Re–Os (molybdenite) isotope study of the early Paleozoic Macquarie Arc, southeastern Australia: Implications for the tectono-magmatic evolution of the paleo-Pacific Gondwana margin. Gondwana Research, 82, 73–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2019.12.015
  • Kokelaar, P., & Romagnoli, C. (1995). Sector collapse, sedimentation and clast population evolution at an active island-arc volcano: Stromboli, Italy. Bulletin of Volcanology, 57(4), 240–262. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00265424
  • Lyons, P., Raymond, O. L., & Duggan, M. B. (2000). Forbes 1: 250 000 geological sheet SI55-7, explanatory notes. Australian Geological Survey Organisation Record, 20.
  • Malehmir, A., Maries, G., Bäckström, E., Schön, M., & Marsden, P. (2017). Developing cost-effective seismic mineral exploration methods using a landstreamer and a drophammer. Scientific Reports, 7(1), 10325. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-10451-6
  • Manville, V., Segschneider, B., & White, J. D. L. (2002). Hydrodynamic behaviour of Taupo 1800a pumice: Implications for the sedimentology of remobilized pyroclasts. Sedimentology, 49(5), 955–976. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3091.2002.00485.x
  • Martí, J., Groppelli, G., & Brum da Silveira, A. (2018). Volcanic stratigraphy: A review. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 357, 68–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2018.04.006
  • McInnes, P. (2015). Cowal Gold Project. The geology and mineralisation of the Cowal Igneous Complex [Unpublished internal report]. Barrick Gold of Australia.
  • McPhie, J., Doyle, M., & Allen, R. (1993). Volcanic textures; a guide to the interpretation of textures in volcanic rocks. University of Tasmania, Centre for Ore Deposit and Exploration Studies.
  • Miall, A. D. (2022). Facies analysis. In A. D. Miall (Ed.), Stratigraphy: A modern synthesis (pp. 91–174). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-87536-7_3
  • Miles, I. N., & Brooker, M. R. (1998). Endeavour 42 deposit, Lake Cowal, New South Wales: A structurally controlled gold deposit. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences, 45(6), 837–847. https://doi.org/10.1080/08120099808728439
  • Németh, K., & Palmer, J. (2019). Geological mapping of volcanic terrains: Discussion on concepts, facies models, scales, and resolutions from New Zealand perspective. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 385, 27–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2018.11.028
  • Orth, K., VandenBerg, A. H. M., King, R. L., Nott, R. J., & Tickell, S. J. (1993). Murrindal 1: 100 000 geological map. Geological Survey of Victoria.
  • Orth, K., VandenBerg, A. H. M., Nott, R. J., & Simons, B. A. (1995). Murrindal 1: 100 000 map geological report. Geological Survey of Victoria Report, 100.
  • Oversby, B. (1971). Palaeozoic plate tectonics in the southern Tasman Geosyncline. Nature Physical Science, 234(46), 45–47. https://doi.org/10.1038/physci234045a0
  • Packham, G. H. (1973). A speculative Phanerozoic history of the south-west Pacific. In P. J. Coleman (Ed.), The Western Pacific: Island arcs, marginal seas, geochemistry (pp. 369–388). University of Western Australia Press.
  • Pemberton, J. W., & Offler, R. (1985). Significance of clinopyroxene compositions from the Cudgegong Volcanics and Toolamanang Volcanics: Cudgegong-Mudgee district, NSW, Australia. Mineralogical Magazine, 49(353), 591–599. https://doi.org/10.1180/minmag.1985.049.353.14
  • Percival, I. G., & Glen, R. A. (2007). Ordovician to earliest Silurian history of the Macquarie Arc, Lachlan Orogen, New South Wales. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences, 54(2-3), 143–165. https://doi.org/10.1080/08120090601146789
  • Plantinga, S., & Vegter, G. (2007). Isotopic meshing of implicit surfaces. The Visual Computer, 23(1), 45–58. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00371-006-0083-6
  • Quinn, C. D., Percival, I., Glen, R. A., & Xiao, W. (2014). Ordovician marginal basin evolution near the palaeo-Pacific east Gondwana margin, Australia. Journal of the Geological Society, 171(5), 723–736. https://doi.org/10.1144/jgs2012-034
  • Radford, D. (2020, December). Updated map and stratigraphy of the Cowal Igneous Complex [Internal Unpublished Presentation]. Evolution Mining Ltd.
  • Ramalho, R. S., Quartau, R., Trenhaile, A. S., Mitchell, N. C., Woodroffe, C. D., & Ávila, S. P. (2013). Coastal evolution on volcanic oceanic islands: A complex interplay between volcanism, erosion, sedimentation, sea-level change and biogenic production. Earth-Science Reviews, 127, 140–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.10.007
  • Raymond, O. L., Sherwin, L., Wallace, D. A., Wyborn, D., Young, G. C., Percival, I. G., & Glen, R. A. (2000). Parkes 1st edition (1: 100 000 Geological Map 8531). Australian Geological Survey Organisation; New South Wales Department of Mineral Resources.
  • Rush, J. A. (2013). Geology of the Marsden Cu–Au Porphyry, NSW [Unpublished BSc Honours thesis]. University of Tasmania.
  • Scheibner, E. (1973). A plate tectonic model of the Palaeozoic tectonic history of New South Wales. Journal of the Geological Society of Australia, 20(4), 405–426. https://doi.org/10.1080/00167617308728826
  • Scheibner, E. (1987). Paleozoic tectonic development of eastern Australia in relation to the Pacific region. In J. W. H. Monger & J. Francheteau (Eds.), Circum‐Pacific orogenic belts and evolution of the Pacific Ocean Basin. Geodynamic Series 18. (pp. 133–165). American Geophysical Union.
  • Schetselaar, E. M. (2013). Mapping the 3D lithofacies architecture of a VMS ore system on a curvilinear-faulted grid: A case study from the Flin Flon mining camp, Canada. Ore Geology Reviews, 53, 261–275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2013.01.012
  • Sealey, C. (2012). The “Decoy” Cu–Au volcanic-hosted massive sulphide deposit (Lake Cowal, Australia): Lithogeochemical characteristics and criteria for the recognition of mineralised horizons [Unpublished BSc Honours thesis]. University of Sydney.
  • Simpson, C. J., Cas, R. A. F., & Arundell, M. C. (2005). Volcanic evolution of a long-lived Ordovician island-arc province in the Parkes region of the Lachlan Fold Belt, southeastern Australia. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences, 52(6), 863–886. https://doi.org/10.1080/08120090500304273
  • Simpson, K., & Cooke, D. R. (2006). Volcanic facies architecture of the E46 prospect, Lake Cowal, NSW. Shallow- and deep level alkalic mineral deposits: Developing an integrated exploration model. Sponsors meeting [Unpublished Meeting Notes]. University of Tasmania.
  • Squire, R. J., & McPhie, J. (2007). Complex volcanic facies architecture of the Forest Reefs Volcanics near Cadia, New South Wales, associated with prolonged arc-related volcanism. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences, 54(2-3), 273–292. https://doi.org/10.1080/08120090601146995
  • Strickland, T. (2005). The geology of the E42 breccia complex, Cowal Au deposit, NSW, Australia [Unpublished BSc Honours thesis]. University of Tasmania.
  • VandenBerg, A. H. M., & Stewart, I. R. (1992). Ordovician terranes of the southeastern Lachlan Fold Belt: Stratigraphy, structure and palaeogeographic reconstruction. Tectonophysics, 214(1-4), 159–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(92)90195-C
  • White, M. J., & McPhie, J. (1996). Stratigraphy and palaeovolcanology of the Cambrian Tyndall group, Mt Read Volcanics, western Tasmania. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences, 43(2), 147–159. https://doi.org/10.1080/08120099608728244
  • Willman, C. E., VandenBerg, A. H. M., & Morand, V. J. (2002). Evolution of the southeastern Lachlan fold belt in Victoria. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences, 49(2), 271–289. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1440-0952.2002.00914.x
  • Wyborn, D. (1992). The tectonic significance of Ordovician magmatism in the eastern Lachlan Fold Belt. Tectonophysics, 214(1-4), 177–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(92)90196-D
  • Wyborn, L. A. I. (1977). Aspects of the geology of the Snowy Mountains region and their implications for the tectonic evolution of the Lachlan Fold Belt [Unpublished PhD thesis]. The Australian National University.
  • Yamada, R., & Yoshida, T. (2004). Volcanic sequences related to Kuroko mineralization in the Hokuroku district, northeast Japan. Resource Geology, 54(4), 399–412. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-3928.2004.tb00216.x
  • Zhang, Q., Buckman, S., Bennett, V. C., & Nutman, A. (2019). Inception and early evolution of the Ordovician Macquarie Arc of Eastern Gondwana margin: Zircon U-Pb-Hf evidence from the Molong Volcanic Belt, Lachlan Orogen. Lithos, 326-327, 513–528. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2019.01.008
  • Zukowski, W. (2010). Geology and mineralisation of the Endeavour 41 gold deposit, Cowal district, NSW, Australia [Unpublished PhD thesis]. University of Tasmania.
  • Zukowski, W., Cooke, D. R., Deyell, C. L., McInnes, P., & Simpson, K. (2014). Genesis and exploration implications of epithermal gold mineralization and porphyry-style alteration at the Endeavour 41 Prospect, Cowal District, New South Wales, Australia. Economic Geology, 109(4), 1079–1115. https://doi.org/10.2113/econgeo.109.4.1079