Carbothermic Reduction of Alumina by Natural Gas to Aluminum and Syngas: A Thermodynamic Study

REFERENCES

• Choate , W. and Green , J. , 2006 , “Technoeconomic assessment of the carbothermic reduction process for aluminum production.” Light Metals , pp. 445 – 450 .
   Google Scholar
• Cox , J. H. and Pidgeon , L. M. , 1963 , “The aluminum-oxygen-carbon system.” Canadian Journal of Chemistry , 41 , pp. 671 – 683 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FactSage, Thermochemical Software & Database Package, Centre for Research in Computational Thermochemistry, Ecole Polytechnique de Montreal, Canada, http://www.crct.polymtl.ca .
   Google Scholar
• Fruehan , T. J. , Li , Y. , and Cargin , G. , 2004 , “Mechanism and rate of reaction of Al2O, Al, and CO vapors with carbon.” Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B , 35 ( 4 ), pp. 617 – 623 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gstoehl , D. , Brambilla , A. , Schunk , L. O. , and Steinfeld , A. , 2008 , “A quenching apparatus for the gaseous products of the solar thermal dissociation of ZnO.” Journal of Materials Science , 43 , pp. 4729 – 4736 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halmann , M. , Frei , A. , and Steinfeld , A. , 2007, “Carbothermal reduction of alumina: thermo-chemical equilibrium calculations and experimental investigation.” Energy , 32, pp. 2420–2427.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halmann , M. , Frei , A. , and Steinfeld , A. , 2011 , “Vacuum carbothermic reduction of Al2O3, BeO, MgO-CaO, TiO2, ZrO2, HfO2+ZrO2, SiO2, SiO2+Fe2O3, and GeO2 to the metals. A thermodynamic study.” Minerals Processing & Extractive Metallurgy Review , 32 ( 4 ), pp. 247 – 266 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halmann , M. and Steinfeld , A. , 2006 , “Thermoneutral tri-reforming of flue gases from coal- and gas-fired power stations.” Catalysis Today , 115 , pp. 170 – 178 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HSC Chemistry Computer Code V.6.0, Roine, A., Outokumpu Technology, Pori, Finland .
   Google Scholar
• Kogan , A. , 1998 , “Direct solar thermal splitting of water and on-site separation of the products – II. Experimental feasibility study.” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy , 23 ( 2 ), pp. 89 – 98 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kruesi , M. , Galvez , M. E. , Halmann , M. , and Steinfeld , A. , 2011 , “Solar aluminum production by vacuum carbothermal reduction of alumina – thermodynamic and experimental analyses.” Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B. Process Metallurgy and Materials Processing Science , 42 ( 1 ), pp. 254 – 260 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lihmann , J. M. , Zambetakis , T. , and Daire , M. , 1989 , “High-temperature behavior of the aluminum oxycarbide Al2OC in the system Al2O3-Al4C3 and with additions of aluminum nitride.” Journal of the American Ceramic Society , 72 ( 9 ), pp. 1704 – 1709 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murray , J. P. , 2001 , “Solar production of aluminum by direct reduction: preliminary results for two processes.” Journal of Solar Energy Engineering , 123 ( 2 ), pp. 125 – 132 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murray , J. P. , Steinfeld , A. , and Fletcher , E. A. , 1995 , “Metals, nitrides, and carbides via solar carbothermal reduction of metal oxides.” Energy , 20 , pp. 695 – 704 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nikulshina , V. , Halmann , M. , and Steinfeld , A. , 2009 , “Co-production of syngas and lime by combined CaCO3-calcination and CH4-reforming using a particle-flow reactor driven by concentrated solar radiation.” Energy & Fuels , 23 , pp. 6207 – 6212 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petrasch , J. , 2002 , “Thermal modeling of solar chemical reactors.” M. Sc. thesis, ETH Zurich, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology.
   Google Scholar
• Rains , R. K. and Kadlec , R. H. , 1970 , “The reduction of Al2O3 to aluminum in a plasma.” Metallurgical Transactions , 1 , pp. 1501 – 1506 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schunk , L. , Haeberling , P. , Wepf , S. , Wuillemin , D. , Meier , A. , and Steinfeld , A. , 2008 , “A solar receiver-reactor for the thermal dissociation of zinc oxide.” ASME Journal of Solar Energy Engineering , 130 , p. 021009 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schunk , L. , Lipinski , W. , and Steinfeld , A. , 2009 , “Heat transfer model of a solar receiver-reactor for the thermal dissociation of ZnO – experimental validation at 10 kW and scale-up to 1 MW.” Chemical Engineering Journal , 150 , pp. 502 – 508 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steinfeld , A. , 1997 , “High-temperature solar thermochemistry for CO2 mitigation in the extractive metallurgical industry.” Energy , 22 , pp. 311 – 316 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steinfeld , A. and Palumbo , R. , 2001 , Solar Thermochemical Process Technology, Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology , New York : Academic Press , Vol. 15 , pp. 237 – 256 .
   Google Scholar
• Welford , W. T. and Winston , R. , 1989 , Nonimaging Optics , San Diego : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar