Gaseous Reduction of Manganese Ores: A Review and Theoretical Insight

References

• Abad, A., Mattisson, T., Lyngfelt, A., and Rydén, M., 2006, “Chemical-looping combustion in a 300 W continuously operating reactor system using a manganese-based oxygen carrier.” Fuel, 85(9). pp. 1174–1185. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2005.11.014.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abrashev, M. V., Todorov, N. D., and Geshev, J., 2014, “Raman spectra of R2O3 (R—rare earth) sesquioxides with C-type bixbyite crystal structure: a comparative study.” Journal of Applied Physics, 116(10). pp. 103508: 1–7. doi:10.1063/1.4894775.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adanez, J., Abad, A., Garcia-Labiano, F., Gayan, P., and de Diego, L. F., 2012, “Progress in chemical-looping combustion and reforming technologies.” Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 38(2). pp. 215–282. doi:10.1016/j.pecs.2011.09.001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adanez, J., de Diego, L. F., Garcia-Labiano, F., Gayan, P., Abad, A., and Palacios, J. M., 2004, “Selection of oxygen carriers for chemical-looping combustion.” Energy & Fuels, 18(2). pp. 371–377. doi:10.1021/ef0301452.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahmed, A., Ghali, S., El-Fawakhry, M., El-Faramawy, H., and Eissa, M., 2014, “Silicomanganese production utilising local manganese ores and manganese rich slag.” Ironmaking & Steelmaking, 41(4). pp. 310–320. doi:10.1179/1743281213Y.0000000173.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akdogan, G., and Eric, R., 1993, “Solid state carbothermic reduction of manganese ores.” International Journal of Materials and Product Technology, 8(1). pp. 29–42.
   Google Scholar
• Akdogan, G., and Eric, R., 1994, “Carbothermic reduction behaviour of wessel manganese ores.” Minerals Engineering, 7(5–6). pp. 633–645. doi:10.1016/0892-6875(94)90095-7.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akdogan, G., and Eric, R. H., 1995, “Kinetics of the solid-state carbothermic reduction of wessel manganese ores.” Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B, 26(1). pp. 13–24. doi:10.1007/BF02648973.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alizadeh, R., Jamshidi, E., and Zhang, G., 2009, “Transformation of methane to synthesis gas over metal oxides without using catalyst.” Journal of Natural Gas Chemistry, 18(2). pp. 124–130. doi:10.1016/S1003-9953(08)60105-X.
   Google Scholar
• Anacleto, N., Ostrovski, O., and Ganguly, S., 2004a, “Reduction of manganese ores by methane-containing gas.” ISIJ International, 44(10). pp. 1615–1622. doi:10.2355/isijinternational.44.1615.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anacleto, N., Ostrovski, O., and Ganguly, S., 2004b, “Reduction of manganese oxides by methane-containing gas.” ISIJ International, 44(9). pp. 1480–1487. doi:10.2355/isijinternational.44.1480.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arjmand, M., Leion, H., Mattisson, T., and Lyngfelt, A., 2014, “Investigation of different manganese ores as oxygen carriers in chemical-looping combustion (CLC) for solid fuels.” Applied Energy, 113. pp. 1883–1894. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2013.06.015.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asai, S., Konishi, Y., and Takasaka, Y., 1995, “Bioleaching of Rare Metals from Manganese Nodules by Thiobacillus Ferrooxidans.” Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review, 15(1–4). pp. 140–141. doi:10.1080/08827509508914164.
   Google Scholar
• Association, W. S, 2018, World Steel in Figures 2018, Brussels, Belgium: World Steel Association.
   Google Scholar
• Baker, H., 1992, ASM Handbook: alloy Phase Diagrams, Ohio, US: ASM international.
   Google Scholar
• Barcza, N. A., and O‘Shaughnessy, D. P., 1981, “Optimum slag–alloy relationships for the production of medium-to low-carbon ferromanganese.” Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly, 20(3). pp. 285–294. doi:10.1179/cmq.1981.20.3.285.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barner, H. E., and Mantell, C. L., 1968, “Kinetics of hydrogen reduction of manganese dioxide.” Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Process Design and Development, 7(2). pp. 285–294. doi:10.1021/i260026a023.
   Google Scholar
• Benz, R., Elliott, J. F., and Chipman, J., 1973, “Thermodynamics of the solid phases in the system Fe− Mn− C.” Metallurgical Transactions, 4(8). pp. 1975–1986. doi:10.1007/BF02665426.
   Google Scholar
• Berg, K. (1998) Gaseous Reduction of Manganese Ores, ISBN: 82-471-0271-4. Doctoral Thesis, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim.
   Google Scholar
• Berg, K., and Olsen, S., 2000, “Kinetics of manganese ore reduction by carbon monoxide.” Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B, 31(3). pp. 477–490. doi:10.1007/s11663-000-0154-4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhadeshia, H. K. D. H., and Christian, J., 1990, “Bainite in steels.” Metallurgical Transactions A, 21(3). pp. 767–797.
   Google Scholar
• Bhalla, A., and Eric, R. H., 2015, “Reduction behavior of manganese ore using methane gas.” Infacon Xiv, 1. pp. 461–469.
   Google Scholar
• Bhonde, P., and Angal, R., 1992, “Solid-state decarburization of high-carbon ferromanganese.” Infacon Vi, 1. pp. 161–165.
   Google Scholar
• Biswas, A., Chakraborti, N., and Sen, P., 2009, “A genetic algorithms based multi-objective optimization approach applied to a hydrometallurgical circuit for ocean nodules.” Mineral Processing & Extractive Metallurgy Review, 30(2). pp. 163–189. doi:10.1080/08827500802397284.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Braga, R. S., Takano, C., and Mourao, M., 2007, “Prereduction of self-reducing pellets of manganese ore.” Ironmaking & Steelmaking, 34(4). pp. 279–284. doi:10.1179/174328107X155349.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burnham, A., Han, J., Clark, C. E., Wang, M., Dunn, J. B., and Palou-Rivera, I., 2011, “Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of shale gas, natural gas, coal, and petroleum.” Environmental Science & Technology, 46(2). pp. 619–627. doi:10.1021/es201942m.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cai, Z., Feng, Y., Li, H., Du, Z., and Liu, X., 2013, “Co-recovery of manganese from low-grade pyrolusite and vanadium from stone coal using fluidized roasting coupling technology.” Hydrometallurgy, 131. pp. 40–45. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2012.10.002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cai, Z., Feng, Y., Li, H., and Liu, X., 2015, “Response surface optimization of reductive leaching manganese from low-grade pyrolusite using biogas residual as reductant.” Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review, 36(1). pp. 1–6. doi:10.1080/08827508.2012.762915.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chakravarty, S., Dureja, V., Bhattacharyya, G., Maity, S., and Bhattacharjee, S., 2002, “Removal of arsenic from groundwater using low cost ferruginous manganese ore.” Water Research, 36(3). pp. 625–632.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheeley, R. “Gasification and the midrex direct reduction process.” 1999 Gasification Technologies Conference, San Francisco, California.
   Google Scholar
• Chen, J., Li, L., Chen, G., Peng, J., and Srinivasakannan, C., 2017, “Rapid thermal decomposition of manganese ore using microwave heating.” Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 699. pp. 430–435. doi:10.1016/j.jallcom.2016.12.379.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheraghi, A., Yoozbashizadeh, H., and Safarian, J., 2018, “Chemical, microstructural, and phase changes of manganese ores in calcination and pre-reduction by natural gas.” INFACON XV, 1. pp. 157–167.
   Google Scholar
• Chetty, D., and Gutzmer, J., 2018, “Quantitative mineralogy to address energy consumption in smelting of ores from the Kalahari Manganese Field, South Africa.” Infacon Xv, 1. pp. 1–10.
   Google Scholar
• Cho, P., Mattisson, T., and Lyngfelt, A., 2004, “Comparison of iron-, nickel-, copper-and manganese-based oxygen carriers for chemical-looping combustion.” Fuel, 83(9). pp. 1215–1225. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2003.11.013.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Claridge, J. B., Green, M. L., Tsang, S. C., York, A. P., Ashcroft, A. T., and Battle, P. D., 1993, “A study of carbon deposition on catalysts during the partial oxidation of methane to synthesis gas.” Catalysis Letters, 22(4). pp. 299–305. doi:10.1007/BF00807237.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coetsee, T., 2017, “The effect of processing parameters on ferromanganese alloy carbon content in Mamatwan ore reduction.” Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review, 38(2). pp. 116–125. doi:10.1080/08827508.2016.1271332.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coetsee, T., 2018, “MnO reduction in high carbon ferromanganese production: practice and theory.” Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review, 39. pp. 351–358. doi:10.1080/08827508.2018.1459618.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coetsee, T., Reinke, C., Nell, J., and Pistorius, P. C., 2015, “Reduction mechanisms in manganese ore reduction.” Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B, 46(6). pp. 2534–2552. doi:10.1007/s11663-015-0414-y.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corathers, L. A. (2017) 2014 Minerals Yearbook, Manganese, US geological survey mineral commodity summary.
   Google Scholar
• Crawford, D., Mayjield, P., Bren, A., and Olsen, A., 1995, “Direct production of ferromanganese from Gemco sand concentrate and coal.” Infacon Vii, 1. pp. 239–248.
   Google Scholar
• Dalaker, H., and Tetlie, P., 2014, Decomposition of methane during oxide reduction with natural gas, In Celebrating the Megascale, (P. J. Mackey, E. J. Grimsey, R. T. Jones, and G. A. Brooks, Eds.), Cham, Switzerland: Springer, pp. 537–546.
   Google Scholar
• Dankwah, J., and Asamoah, D., 2013, “Utilisation of post-consumer plastics in pre-reduction of higher manganese oxides in ferromanganese process.” Ironmaking & Steelmaking, 40(2). pp. 138–146. doi:10.1179/1743281212Y.0000000043.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dankwah, J., and Koshy, P., 2014, “Effect of HDPE addition on the pre-reduction of Mn3O4 to MnO by metallurgical coke.” High Temperature Materials and Processes, 33(4). pp. 345–353. doi:10.1515/htmp-2013-0069.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Das, G., Anand, S., Das, R., Muir, D., and Singh, P., 2000, “Sulfur Dioxide–A leachant for oxidic materials in aqueous and Non-aqueous ‘.” Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review, 20(4–6). pp. 377–407. doi:10.1080/08827500008547438.
   Google Scholar
• De Bruijn, T., Soerawidjaja, T., De Jongt, W., and Van Den Berg, P., 1980, “Modelling of the reduction of manganese oxides with hydrogen.” Chemical Engineering Science, 35(7). pp. 1591–1599. doi:10.1016/0009-2509(80)80052-2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Villiers, J. P. R., and Herbstein, F. H., 1967, “Distinction between 2 members of braunite group.” American Mineralogist, 52(1–2). pp. 20–30.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dinsdale, A. T., 1991, “SGTE data for pure elements.” Calphad, 15(4). pp. 317–425. doi:10.1016/0364-5916(91)90030-N.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Djurovic, D., Hallstedt, B., Von Appen, J., and Dronskowski, R., 2010, “Thermodynamic assessment of the Mn–C system.” Calphad, 34(3). pp. 279–285. doi:10.1016/j.calphad.2010.05.002.
   Google Scholar
• Djurovic, D., Hallstedt, B., Von Appen, J., and Dronskowski, R., 2011, “Thermodynamic assessment of the Fe–mn–C system.” Calphad, 35(4). pp. 479–491. doi:10.1016/j.calphad.2011.08.002.
   Google Scholar
• Eissa, M., Ghali, S., Ahmed, A., and El-Faramawy, H., 2012, “Optimum condition for smelting high carbon ferromanganese.” Ironmaking & Steelmaking, 39(6). pp. 419–430. doi:10.1179/1743281211Y.0000000062.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El-Gawad, H. H. A., Ahmed, M., El-Hussiny, N., and Shalabi, M., 2014, “Reduction of low grade Egyptian manganese ore via hydrogen at 800 C-950 C.” Open Access Library Journal, L, 1. pp. e427.
   Google Scholar
• El-Hussiny, N., El-Gawad, H. H. A., Mohamed, F., and Shalabi, M., 2015, “Pelletization and reduction of Egyptian low grade manganese ore pellets via hydrogen at 750–950ºC.” International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, 6(5). pp. 339–346.
   Google Scholar
• Elliott, R., Coley, K., Mostaghel, S., and Barati, M., 2018, “Review of manganese processing for production of TRIP/TWIP Steels, Part 1: current practice and processing fundamentals.” JOM, 70. pp. 680–690. doi:10.1007/s11837-018-2769-4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eom, C. H., and Min, D. J., 2016, “Kinetics of the formation reaction of manganese carbide under various gases.” Metals and Materials International, 22(1). pp. 129–135. doi:10.1007/s12540-015-5419-1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eric, R., Bhalla, A., Halli, P., and Taskinen, P., 2017, Solid state reduction of iron, manganese and chromium oxide ores with methane, In Applications of Process Engineering Principles in Materials Processing, Energy and Environmental Technologies, (S. Wang, M. L. Free, S. Alam, M. Zhang, and P. Taylor, Eds.), Cham, Switzerland: Springer, pp. 307–318.
   Google Scholar
• Eric, R., and Burucu, E., 1992, “The mechanism and kinetics of the carbothermic reduction of Mamatwan manganese ore fines.” Minerals Engineering, 5(7). pp. 795–815. doi:10.1016/0892-6875(92)90247-7.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eric, R. H., 1995, “An overview on manganese alloy production and related fundamental research in South Africa.” Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review, 15(1–4). pp. 191–200. doi:10.1080/08827509508914197.
   Google Scholar
• Ermakova, M. A., Ermakov, D. Y., Chuvilin, A. L., and Kuvshinov, G. G., 2001, “Decomposition of methane over iron catalysts at the range of moderate temperatures: the influence of structure of the catalytic systems and the reaction conditions on the yield of carbon and morphology of carbon filaments.” Journal of Catalysis, 201(2). pp. 183–197. doi:10.1006/jcat.2001.3243.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ermakova, M. A., Ermakov, D. Y., and Kuvshinov, G. G., 2000, “Effective catalysts for direct cracking of methane to produce hydrogen and filamentous carbon: part I. Nickel catalysts.” Applied Catalysis A: General, 201(1). pp. 61–70. doi:10.1016/S0926-860X(00)00433-6.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fahim, M. S., El Faramawy, H., Ahmed, A. M., Ghali, S. N., and Kandil, A. E. H. T., 2013, “Characterization of Egyptian manganese ores for production of high carbon ferromanganese.” Journal of Minerals and Materials Characterization and Engineering, 1(02). pp. 68. doi:10.4236/jmmce.2013.12013.
   Google Scholar
• Fleytlich, I., Sergeev, V., Pashkov, G., Luboshnikova, K., Sergeeva, V., Makarov, I., Galantseva, T., and Kholkin, A., 1995, “Purification of cobalt solutions from manganese by extraction with mixture of organic acids.” Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review, 15(1–4). pp. 166–167. doi:10.1080/08827509508936974.
   Google Scholar
• Fuerstenau, D. W., and Han, K. N., 1983, “Metallurgy and processing of marine manganese nodules.” Mineral Procesing and Extractive Metallurgy Review, 1(1–2). pp. 1–83. doi:10.1080/08827508308952589.
   Google Scholar
• Gao, Y., Kim, H., and Sohn, H., 2012, “Kinetics of pre-reduction of manganese ore by CO.” Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy, 121(2). pp. 109–116. doi:10.1179/1743285512Y.0000000003.
   Google Scholar
• Glasser, F. P., 1958, “The system MnO-SiO2.” American Journal of Science, 256(6). pp. 398–412. doi:10.2475/ajs.256.6.398.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grabke, H., 1970, “Evidence on the surface concentration of carbon on gamma iron from the kinetics of the carburization in CH 4− H 2.” Metallurgical Transactions, 1(10). pp. 2972–2975.
   Google Scholar
• Grieco, G., Kastrati, S., and Pedrotti, M., 2014, “Magnetic enrichment of braunite-rich manganese ore at different grain sizes.” Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review, 35(4). pp. 257–265. doi:10.1080/08827508.2013.793680.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haimi, T., and Ren, S., 2018, “Meeting the environmental targets for new ferrochrome processes in China with a sustainable Outotec process.” Infacon Xv, 1. pp. 1–14.
   Google Scholar
• Hasanbeigi, A., Arens, M., and Price, L., 2014, “Alternative emerging ironmaking technologies for energy-efficiency and carbon dioxide emissions reduction: a technical review.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 33. pp. 645–658. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2014.02.031.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hashizume, T., Terayama, K., Shimazaki, T., Itoh, H., and Okuno, Y., 2002, “Reduction of MnFe2O4 without and with carbon.” Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, 69(3). pp. 1045–1050. doi:10.1023/A:1020605416982.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hils, G., Newirkowez, A., Kroker, M., Grethe, U., Schmidt‐Jürgensen, R., Kroos, J., and Spitzer, K. H., 2015, “Conventional and tailored Mn‐bearing alloying agents for the production of high manganese steels.” Steel Research International, 86(4). pp. 411–421. doi:10.1002/srin.201400153.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hsiaohong, C., and Chongyue, F., 1995a, “Kinetics of leaching manganese nodules in the presence of Zinc Sulfide.” Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review, 15(1–4). pp. 101–114. doi:10.1080/08827509508914189.
   Google Scholar
• Hsiaohong, C., and Chongyue, F., 1995b, “Leaching of manganese nodule in dilute acid solutions in presence of zinc sulfide concentrate.” Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review, 15(1–4). pp. 95–100. doi:10.1080/08827509508914188.
   Google Scholar
• Institute, I. M, 2018, IMnI Statistics 2018International Manganese Institute, Paris, France.
   Google Scholar
• Ishak, R. (2002) Reaction Kinetics for Reduction of Manganese Ore with Carbon Monoxide in the Presence of Carbon, ISBN: 82-471-5528-1. Doctoral Thesis, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim.
   Google Scholar
• Ishak, R., and Tangstad, M., 2007, “Degree of prereduction without coke consumption in industrial furnaces.” INFACON XI, 1. pp. 268–279.
   Google Scholar
• Jarosch, D., 1987, “Crystal structure refinement and reflectance measurements of hausmannite, Mn3O4.” Mineralogy and Petrology, 37(1). pp. 15–23. doi:10.1007/BF01163155.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jiang, T., Yang, Y., Huang, Z., Zhang, B., and Qiu, G., 2004, “Leaching kinetics of pyrolusite from manganese–silver ores in the presence of hydrogen peroxide.” Hydrometallurgy, 72(1). pp. 129–138. doi:10.1016/S0304-386X(03)00136-1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johansson, M., Mattisson, T., and Lyngfelt, A., 2006, “Investigation of Mn3O4 with stabilized ZrO2 for chemical-looping combustion.” Chemical Engineering Research and Design, 84(9). pp. 807–818. doi:10.1205/cherd.05206.
   Google Scholar
• Julien, C., Massot, M., and Poinsignon, C., 2004, “Lattice vibrations of manganese oxides: part I. Periodic structures.” Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy, 60(3). pp. 689–700. doi:10.1016/S1386-1425(03)00279-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaczorowski, J., Lindstad, T., and Syvertsen, M., 2007, “The influence of potassium on the Boudouard reaction in manganese production.” ISIJ International, 47(11). pp. 1599–1604. doi:10.2355/isijinternational.47.1599.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• King, H., 1982, “Temperature-dependent allotropic structures of the elements.” Journal of Phase Equilibria, 3(2). pp. 276.
   Google Scholar
• Kivinen, V., Krogerus, H., and Daavittila, J., 2010, “Upgrading of Mn/Fe ratio of low-grade manganese ore for ferromanganese production.” Infacon Xii, 1. pp. 467–476.
   Google Scholar
• Kononov, R., Ostrovski, O., and Ganguly, S., 2008, “Carbothermal reduction of manganese oxide in different gas atmospheres.” Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B, 39(5). pp. 662–668. doi:10.1007/s11663-008-9191-1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kononov, R., Ostrovski, O., and Ganguly, S., 2009a, “Carbothermal solid state reduction of manganese ores: 1. Manganese ore characterisation.” ISIJ International, 49(8). pp. 1099–1106. doi:10.2355/isijinternational.49.1099.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kononov, R., Ostrovski, O., and Ganguly, S., 2009b, “Carbothermal solid state reduction of manganese ores: 2. Non-isothermal and isothermal reduction in different gas atmospheres.” ISIJ International, 49(8). pp. 1107–1114. doi:10.2355/isijinternational.49.1107.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kononov, R., Ostrovski, O., and Ganguly, S., 2009c, “Carbothermal solid state reduction of manganese ores: 3. Phase development.” ISIJ International, 49(8). pp. 1115–1122. doi:10.2355/isijinternational.49.1115.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kononov, R., Ostrovski, O., and Ganguly, S., 2010, “Low temperature carbothermal reduction of siliceous manganese fines.” Infacon Xii, 1. pp. 167–178.
   Google Scholar
• Kor, G., 1978, “The thermal decomposition of Mn2O3 and the reduction of Mn3O4 by C and CO.” Metallurgical Transactions B, 9(2). pp. 307–311. doi:10.1007/BF02653697.
   Google Scholar
• Kuo, K., and Persson, L., 1954, “A contribution to the constitution of the ternary system Fe-Mn-C isothermal sections at 1050-Degrees-C, 910-Degrees-C, and 690-Degrees-C.” Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, 178(1). pp. 39–44.
   Google Scholar
• Linderholm, C., Lyngfelt, A., Cuadrat, A., and Jerndal, E., 2012, “Chemical-looping combustion of solid fuels–operation in a 10 kW unit with two fuels, above-bed and in-bed fuel feed and two oxygen carriers, manganese ore and ilmenite.” Fuel, 102. pp. 808–822. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2012.05.010.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lindstad, T., Syvertsen, M., Ishak, R., Arntzen, H., and Grøntvedt, P., 2004, “The influence of alkalis on the Boudouard reaction.” Infacon X, 1. pp. 261–271.
   Google Scholar
• Liu, B., Zhang, Y., Su, Z., Lu, M., Li, G., and Jiang, T., 2018, “A study on the carbonization and alloying process of MnO2 by methane-hydrogen gas mixture in the presence of Fe2O3.” Powder Technology, 325. pp. 271–279. doi:10.1016/j.powtec.2017.11.010.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, B., Zhang, Y., Su, Z., Peng, Z., Li, G., and Jiang, T., 2017, “Thermodynamic analysis and reduction of MnO2 by Methane–hydrogen gas mixture.” JOM, 69(9). pp. 1669–1675. doi:10.1007/s11837-017-2456-x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mattisson, T., Järdnäs, A., and Lyngfelt, A., 2003, “Reactivity of some metal oxides supported on alumina with alternating methane and oxygen application for chemical-looping combustion.” Energy & Fuels, 17(3). pp. 643–651. doi:10.1021/ef020151i.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mattisson, T., Lyngfelt, A., and Leion, H., 2009, “Chemical-looping with oxygen uncoupling for combustion of solid fuels.” International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control, 3(1). pp. 11–19. doi:10.1016/j.ijggc.2008.06.002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mehdilo, A., Irannajad, M., and Hojjati-Rad, M. R., 2013, “Characterization and beneficiation of iranian low-grade manganese ore.” Physicochemical Problems of Mineral Processing, 49(2). pp. 725–741.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mishra, P., Mohapatra, B., and Mahanta, K., 2009, “Upgradation of low-grade siliceous manganese ore from Bonai-Keonjhar Belt, Orissa, India.” Journal of Minerals and Materials Characterization and Engineering, 8(01). pp. 47–56. doi:10.4236/jmmce.2009.81005.
   Google Scholar
• Morrison, A., Hietkamp, S., and Van Vuuren, D., 2004, “Direct reduction process using fines and with reduced CO2 emission.” Ironmaking & Steelmaking, 31(4). pp. 285–290. doi:10.1179/030192304225018235.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mpho, M., Samson, B., and Ayo, A., 2013, “Evaluation of reduction roasting and magnetic separation for upgrading Mn/Fe ratio of fine ferromanganese.” International Journal of Mining Science and Technology, 23(4). pp. 537–541. doi:10.1016/j.ijmst.2013.07.012.
   Google Scholar
• Muan, A., 1959, “Phase equilibria in the system manganese oxide-SiO 2 in air.” American Journal of Science, 257(4). pp. 297–315. doi:10.2475/ajs.257.4.297.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mukherjee, A., Raichur, A. M., Natarajan, K., and Modak, J. M., 2004, “Recent developments in processing ocean manganese nodules—A critical review.” Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review, 25(2). pp. 91–127. doi:10.1080/08827500490433188.
   Google Scholar
• Ohla, K., and Grabke, H., 1982, “On the ‘coke’ growth in carburizing and sulfidizing atmospheres upon High temperature corrosion of iron and nickel base alloys.” Materials and Corrosion, 33(6). pp. 341–346. doi:10.1002/maco.19820330604.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olsen, S. E., Tangstad, M., and Lindstad, T., 2007, Production of Manganese Ferroalloys, Trondheim, Norway: Tapir Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ostrovski, O., 2014, The use of natural gas for reduction of metal oxides: constraints and prospects, In Celebrating the Megascale, (P. J. Mackey, E. J. Grimsey, R. T. Jones, and G. A. Brooks, Eds.), Cham, Switzerland: Springer, pp. 529–536.
   Google Scholar
• Ostrovski, O., Yastreboff, M., Johnston, R. F., Anacleto, N., and Ganguly, S., 2004, Solid State Reduction of Oxides, US: Google Patents.
   Google Scholar
• Ostrovski, O., and Zhang, G., 2006, “Reduction and carburization of metal oxides by methane‐containing gas.” AIChE Journal, 52(1). pp. 300–310. doi:10.1002/(ISSN)1547-5905.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ostrovski, O., Zhang, G., Kononov, R., Dewan, M. A., and Li, J., 2010, “Carbothermal solid state reduction of stable metal oxides.” Steel Research International, 81(10). pp. 841–846. doi:10.1002/srin.201000177.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ostwald, J., 1988, “Mineralogy of the Groote Eylandt manganese oxides: a review.” Ore Geology Reviews, 4(1–2). pp. 3–45. doi:10.1016/0169-1368(88)90003-0.
   Google Scholar
• Pollert, E., 1980, “Tetragonal-to-cubic transformation of hausmannite.” Journal of Solid State Chemistry, 33(3). pp. 305–308. doi:10.1016/0022-4596(80)90150-4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Post, J. E., 1999, “Manganese oxide minerals: crystal structures and economic and environmental significance.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 96(7). pp. 3447–3454. doi:10.1073/pnas.96.7.3447.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PRA (2015) Manganese, The Global Picture - A Socio Economic Assessment, report for the International Manganese Institute, Loddon, Norfolk, UK.
   Google Scholar
• Randhawa, N., Jana, R., and Das, N., 2013, “Silicomanganese production utilising low grade manganese nodules leaching residue.” Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy, 122(1). pp. 6–14. doi:10.1179/1743285512Y.0000000022.
   Google Scholar
• Rankin, J., 1980, “The kinetics of the reduction of manganous oxide by graphite.” Journal of the Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 80(7). pp. 239–247.
   Google Scholar
• Rankin, W., and Wynnyckyj, J., 1997, “Kinetics of reduction of MnO in powder mixtures with carbon.” Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B, 28(2). pp. 307–319. doi:10.1007/s11663-997-0097-0.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rao, Y., Adjorlolo, A., and Haberman, J., 1982, “On the mechanism of catalysis of the Boudouard reaction by alkali-metal compounds.” Carbon, 20(3). pp. 207–212. doi:10.1016/0008-6223(82)90022-7.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rath, S. S., Tripathy, S. K., Rao, D. S., and Biswal, S. K., 2018, “Characterization and reduction roasting studies of an iron rich manganese ore.” Transactions of the Indian Institute of Metals, 71(4). pp. 861–872. doi:10.1007/s12666-017-1218-3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Safarian, J., Grong, Ø., Kolbeinsen, L., and Olsen, S. E., 2006, “A process model for the carbothermic reduction of MnO from high carbon ferromanganese slag—the model.” ISIJ International, 46(8). pp. 1120–1129. doi:10.2355/isijinternational.46.1120.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Safarian, J., and Kolbeinsen, L., 2008, “Kinetic of carbothermic reduction of MnO from high-carbon ferromanganese slag by graphite materials.” ISIJ International, 48(4). pp. 395–404. doi:10.2355/isijinternational.48.395.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schottman, F. J., 1988, “Current status of supply and use of iron, steel, and Ferroalloys.” Mineral Procesing and Extractive Metallurgy Review, 3(1–4). pp. 45–54. doi:10.1080/08827508808952614.
   Google Scholar
• Shu, J., Liu, R., Liu, Z., Chen, H., and Tao, C., 2017, “Leaching of manganese from electrolytic manganese residue by electro-reduction.” Environmental Technology, 38(16). pp. 2077–2084. doi:10.1080/09593330.2016.1245789.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shulman, A., Cleverstam, E., Mattisson, T., and Lyngfelt, A., 2009, “Manganese/iron, manganese/ nickel,and manganese/silicon oxides used in chemical-looping with oxygen uncoupling (CLOU) for combustion of methane.” Energy & Fuels, 23(10). pp. 5269–5275. doi:10.1021/ef9005466.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sichen, D., Seetharaman, S., and Staffansson, L.-I., 1988, “Standard gibbs energies of formation of the carbides of manganese by emf measurements.” Metallurgical Transactions B, 19(6). pp. 951–957. doi:10.1007/BF02651418.
   Google Scholar
• Singh, V., Ghosh, T. K., Ramamurthy, Y., and Tathavadkar, V., 2011, “Beneficiation and agglomeration process to utilize low-grade ferruginous manganese ore fines.” International Journal of Mineral Processing, 99(1). pp. 84–86. doi:10.1016/j.minpro.2011.03.003.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skjervheim, T.-A., and Olsen, S., 1995, “The rate and mechanism for reduction of manganese oxide from silicate slags.” Infacon Vii, 1. pp. 631–639.
   Google Scholar
• Sorensen, B., Gaal, S., Ringdalen, E., Tangstad, M., Kononov, R., and Ostrovski, O., 2010a, “Phase compositions of manganese ores and their change in the process of calcination.” International Journal of Mineral Processing, 94(3). pp. 101–110. doi:10.1016/j.minpro.2010.01.001.
   Google Scholar
• Sorensen, B., Gaal, S., Tangstad, M., Ringdalen, E., Kononov, R., and Ostrovski, O., 2010b, “Properties of manganese ores and their change in the process of calcination.” Infacon Xii, 1. pp. 439–448.
   Google Scholar
• Stobbe, E., De Boer, B., and Geus, J., 1999, “The reduction and oxidation behaviour of manganese oxides.” Catalysis Today, 47(1). pp. 161–167. doi:10.1016/S0920-5861(98)00296-X.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swamy, K., Robertson, D., Calvert, P., and Kozak, D., 2001, “Factors affecting carbon consumption in the production of high carbon ferromanganese.” Infacon Ix, 1. pp. 293–301.
   Google Scholar
• Szekely, J., 1976, Gas-Solid Reactions, New York, US: Elsevier.
   Google Scholar
• Tangstad, M., Ichihara, K., and Ringdalen, E., 2015, “Pretreatment unit in ferromanganese production.” Infacon Xiv, 1. pp. 99–106.
   Google Scholar
• Tangstad, M., Leroy, D., and Ringdalen, E., 2010, “Behavior of agglomerates in ferromanganese production.” Infacon Xii, 1. pp. 457–465.
   Google Scholar
• Tangstad, M., and Olsen, S. E. (1997) “Phase relations in ferromanganese slags during melting and reduction.” 5th international conference on molten slags, fluxes and salts, Sydney, Australia, pp. 549–555.
   Google Scholar
• Tangstad, M., Wasbø, S., and Tronstad, R., 2001, “Kinetics of the prereduction of manganese ores.” Infacon Ix, 1. pp. 202–207.
   Google Scholar
• Terayama, K., and Shimazaki, T., 2000, “Effect of hydrogen on the reduction kinetics of manganese oxide at high temperatures by new EGA method.” Netsu Sokutei, 27(1). pp. 13–18.
   Google Scholar
• Tranell, G., Gaal, S., Lu, D., Tangstad, M., and Safarian, J., 2007, “Reduction kinetics of manganese oxide from HC FeMn slags.” INFACON XI, 1. pp. 231–240.
   Google Scholar
• Tripathy, S. K., Banerjee, P., and Suresh, N., 2015, “Effect of desliming on the magnetic separation of low-grade ferruginous manganese ore.” International Journal of Minerals, Metallurgy, and Materials, 22(7). pp. 661–673. doi:10.1007/s12613-015-1120-0.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tripathy, S. K., Mallick, M., Singh, V., and Murthy, Y. R., 2013, “Preliminary studies on teeter bed separator for separation of manganese fines.” Powder Technology, 239. pp. 284–289. doi:10.1016/j.powtec.2013.02.015.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vanderstaay, E., Swinbourne, D., and Monteiro, M., 2004, “A computational thermodynamics model of submerged arc electric furnace ferromanganese smelting.” Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy, 113(1). pp. 38–44. doi:10.1179/037195504225004706.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Visser, M., Smith, H., Ringdalen, E., and Tangstad, M., 2013, “Properties of Nchwaning and Gloria ore in the production of Mn ferro-alloys.” Infacon Xiii, 1. pp. 553–566.
   Google Scholar
• Vratny, F., Dilling, M., Gugliotta, F., and Rao, C., 1961, “Infrared spectra of metallic oxides, phosphates and chromates.” Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research. B, Physical Sciences, 20. pp. 590–593.
   Google Scholar
• Wang, S., Lu, G., and Millar, G. J., 1996, “Carbon dioxide reforming of methane to produce synthesis gas over metal-supported catalysts: state of the art.” Energy & Fuels, 10(4). pp. 896–904.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wellbeloved, D. B., Craven, P. M., and Waudby, J. W., 1990, “Manganese and manganese alloys.” Ullmann‘S Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 22. pp. 175–221.
   Google Scholar
• Wu, F.-F., Zhong, H., Wang, S., and Lai, S.-F., 2014, “Kinetics of reductive leaching of manganese oxide ore using cellulose as reductant.” Journal of Central South University, 21(5). pp. 1763–1770.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yastreboff, M., Ostrovski, O., and Ganguly, S., 2003, “Effect of gas composition on the carbothermic reduction of manganese oxide.” ISIJ International, 43(2). pp. 161–165.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ye, Q., Chen, J., Chen, G., Peng, J., Srinivasakannan, C., and Ruan, R., 2018, “Effect of microwave heating on the microstructures and kinetics of carbothermal reduction of pyrolusite ore.” Advanced Powder Technology, 29(18). pp. 1871–1878.
   Google Scholar
• Ye, Q., Zhu, H., Zhang, L., Liu, P., Chen, G., and Peng, J., 2014, “Carbothermal reduction of low-grade pyrolusite by microwave heating.” RSC Advances, 4(102). pp. 58164–58170.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoon, C. H., Kim, J., Park, H., and Yoo, K., 2015, “The distribution of particle size and composition of manganese nodule comminuted during lifting.” Geosystem Engineering, 18(6). pp. 348–352.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zafar, Q., Abad, A., Mattisson, T., Gevert, B., and Strand, M., 2007, “Reduction and oxidation kinetics of Mn3O4/Mg–zrO2 oxygen carrier particles for chemical-looping combustion.” Chemical Engineering Science, 62(23). pp. 6556–6567.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zaki, M., Hasan, M., Pasupulety, L., and Kumari, K., 1997, “Thermochemistry of manganese oxides in reactive gas atmospheres: probing redox compositions in the decomposition course MnO2→ MnO.” Thermochimica Acta, 303(2). pp. 171–181.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, B., and Xue, Z.-L., 2013, “Kinetics analyzing of direction reduction on manganese ore pellets containing carbon.” International Journal of Nonferrous Metallurgy, 2(03). pp. 116.
   Google Scholar
• Zhang, T., and Amiridis, M. D., 1998, “Hydrogen production via the direct cracking of methane over silica-supported nickel catalysts.” Applied Catalysis A: General, 167(2). pp. 161–172.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, W., and Cheng, C. Y., 2007, “Manganese metallurgy review. Part I: leaching of ores/secondary materials and recovery of electrolytic/chemical manganese dioxide.” Hydrometallurgy, 89(3–4). pp. 137–159.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, Y., Du, M., Liu, B., Su, Z., Li, G., and Jiang, T., 2017, “Separation and recovery of iron and manganese from high-iron manganese oxide ores by reduction roasting and magnetic separation technique.” Separation Science and Technology, 52(7). pp. 1321–1332.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, Y., Liu, B., You, Z., Su, Z., Luo, W., Li, G., and Jiang, T., 2016, “Consolidation behavior of high-Fe manganese ore sinters with natural basicity.” Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review, 37(5). pp. 333–341.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar