References
- Mandia D, Ferraro O, Nosari G, et al. Environmental factors and multiple sclerosis severity: a descriptive study. IJERPH. 2014;11(6):6417–6432. doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph110606417.
- Potagas C, Giogkaraki E, Koutsis G, et al. Cognitive impairment in different MS subtypes and clinically isolated syndromes. J Neurol Sci. 2008;267(1–2):100–106. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jns.2007.10.002.
- Trip S, Miller D. Imaging in multiple sclerosis. J Neurol Neurosur Psyc. 2005;76(suppl_3):iii11–iii18. doi:https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.2005.073213.
- Gandhi R. miRNA in multiple sclerosis: search for novel biomarkers. Mult Scler. 2015;21(9):1095–1103. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/1352458515578771.
- Ghasemi-Kasman M, Hajikaram M, Baharvand H, et al. MicroRNA-mediated in vitro and in vivo direct conversion of astrocytes to neuroblasts. PloS One. 2015;10(6):e0127878. doi:https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0127878.
- Mohajeri M, Banach M, Atkin SL, et al. MicroRNAs: novel molecular targets and response modulators of statin therapy. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2018; 39(11):967–981. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tips.2018.09.005.
- Dolati S, Marofi F, Babaloo Z, et al. Dysregulated network of miRNAs involved in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis. Biomed Pharmacother. 2018;104:280–290. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2018.05.050.
- Piket E, Zheleznyakova GY, Kular L, et al. Small non-coding RNAs as important players, biomarkers and therapeutic targets in multiple sclerosis: a comprehensive overview. J Autoimmun. 2019;101:17–25., doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaut.2019.04.002.
- Mueller M, Zhou J, Yang L, et al. PreImplantation factor promotes neuroprotection by targeting microRNA let-7. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2014;111(38):13882–13887. doi:https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1411674111.
- Sayetta R. Theories of the etiology of multiple sclerosis: a critical review. J Clin Lab Immunol. 1986;21(2):55–70.
- Aalaei-Andabili SH, Rezaei N. MicroRNAs (MiRs) precisely regulate immune system development and function in immunosenescence process. Int Rev Immunol. 2016; 35(1):57–66. doi:https://doi.org/10.3109/08830185.2015.1077828.
- Zurawska A, Mycko MP, Selmaj KW. Circular RNAs as a novel layer of regulatory mechanism in multiple sclerosis. J Neuroimmunol. 2019;334:576971. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroim.2019.576971.
- Carissimi C, Fulci V, Macino G. MicroRNAs: novel regulators of immunity. Autoimmun Rev. 2009;8(6):520–524. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autrev.2009.01.008.
- Ahlbrecht J, Martino F, Pul R, et al. Deregulation of microRNA-181c in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with clinically isolated syndrome is associated with early conversion to relapsing–remitting multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler. 2016;22(9):1202–1214. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/1352458515613641.
- Bergman P, Piket E, Khademi M, et al. Circulating miR-150 in CSF is a novel candidate biomarker for multiple sclerosis. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm. 2016; 3(3):e219. doi:https://doi.org/10.1212/NXI.0000000000000219.
- Davila JAA, De Los Rios AH. An overview of peripheral blood mononuclear cells as a model for immunological research of Toxoplasma gondii and other apicomplexan parasites. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2019;9:24.
- Zaffaroni M, Marino F, Bombelli R, et al. Therapy with interferon-beta modulates endogenous catecholamines in lymphocytes of patients with multiple sclerosis. Exp Neurol. 2008;214(2):315–321. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expneurol.2008.08.015.
- Keller A, Leidinger P, Lange J, et al. Multiple sclerosis: microRNA expression profiles accurately differentiate patients with relapsing-remitting disease from healthy controls. PloS One. 2009;4(10):e7440. doi:https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0007440.
- Rezaeepoor M, et al. Semaphorin-3A as an immune modulator is suppressed by MicroRNA-145-5p. Cell Journal (Yakhteh). 2018; 20(1):113.
- Ridolfi E, Fenoglio C, Cantoni C, et al. Expression and genetic analysis of microRNAs involved in multiple sclerosis. Int J Mol Sci. 2013;14(3):4375–4384. doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms14034375.
- Fenoglio C, Cantoni C, De Riz M, et al. Expression and genetic analysis of miRNAs involved in CD4+ cell activation in patients with multiple sclerosis. Neurosci Lett. 2011;504(1) :9–12. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2011.08.021.
- Otaegui D, Baranzini SE, Armañanzas R, et al. Differential micro RNA expression in PBMC from multiple sclerosis patients. PloS One. 2009;4(7):e6309. doi:https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0006309.
- Du C, Liu C, Kang J, et al. MicroRNA miR-326 regulates TH-17 differentiation and is associated with the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis. Nat Immunol. 2009;10(12):1252–1259. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/ni.1798.
- Babbe H, Roers A, Waisman A, et al. Clonal expansions of CD8(+) T cells dominate the T cell infiltrate in active multiple sclerosis lesions as shown by micromanipulation and single cell polymerase chain reaction. J Exp Med. 2000;192(3):393–404. doi:https://doi.org/10.1084/jem.192.3.393.
- Guerau-de-Arellano M, Smith KM, Godlewski J, et al. Micro-RNA dysregulation in multiple sclerosis favours pro-inflammatory T-cell-mediated autoimmunity. Brain. 2011;134(Pt 12):3578–3589. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awr262.
- Lorenzi JCC, Brum DG, Zanette DL, et al. miR-15a and 16-1 are downregulated in CD4+ T cells of multiple sclerosis relapsing patients. Int J Neurosci. 2012;122(8):466–471. doi:https://doi.org/10.3109/00207454.2012.678444.
- Lindberg RLP, Hoffmann F, Mehling M, et al. Altered expression of miR-17-5p in CD4+ lymphocytes of relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis patients. Eur J Immunol. 2010;40(3):888–898. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/eji.200940032.
- Arruda LCM, Lorenzi JCC, Sousa APA, et al. Autologous hematopoietic SCT normalizes miR-16, -155 and -142-3p expression in multiple sclerosis patients. Bone Marrow Transplant. 2015;50(3):380–389. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/bmt.2014.277.
- Meira M, Sievers C, Hoffmann F, et al. Unraveling natalizumab effects on deregulated miR-17 expression in CD4. J Immunol Res. 2014;2014:897249. doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/897249.
- von Büdingen H-C, Bar-Or A, Zamvil SS. B cells in multiple sclerosis: connecting the dots. Curr Opin Immunol. 2011;23(6):713–720. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coi.2011.09.003.
- Miyazaki Y, Li R, Rezk A, et al. A novel microRNA-132-surtuin-1 axis underlies aberrant B-cell cytokine regulation in patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. Plos One. 2014;9(8):e105421. doi:https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0105421.
- Sievers C, Meira M, Hoffmann F, et al. Altered microRNA expression in B lymphocytes in multiple sclerosis: towards a better understanding of treatment effects. Clin Immunol. 2012;144(1):70–79. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clim.2012.04.002.
- Weber JA, Baxter DH, Zhang S, et al. The microRNA spectrum in 12 body fluids. Clin Chem. 2010;56(11):1733–1741. doi:https://doi.org/10.1373/clinchem.2010.147405.
- Gandhi R, Healy B, Gholipour T, et al. Circulating microRNAs as biomarkers for disease staging in multiple sclerosis. Ann Neurol. 2013;73(6):729–740. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.23880.
- Siegel SR, Mackenzie J, Chaplin G, et al. Circulating microRNAs involved in multiple sclerosis. Mol Biol Rep. 2012;39(5):6219–6225. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s11033-011-1441-7.
- Vistbakka J, Elovaara I, Lehtimäki T, et al. Circulating microRNAs as biomarkers in progressive multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler. 2017;23(3):403–412. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/1352458516651141.
- Søndergaard HB, Hesse D, Krakauer M, et al. Differential microRNA expression in blood in multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler. 2013;19(14):1849–1857. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/1352458513490542.
- Ascherio A, Munch M. Epstein-Barr virus and multiple sclerosis. Epidemiology. 2000;11(2):220–224. doi:https://doi.org/10.1097/00001648-200003000-00023.
- Larsen PD, Bloomer LC, Bray PF. Epstein-Barr nuclear antigen and viral capsid antigen antibody titers in multiple sclerosis. Neurology. 1985;35(3):435–435. doi:https://doi.org/10.1212/wnl.35.3.435.
- Wang YF, He DD, Liang HW, et al. The identification of up-regulated ebv-miR-BHRF1-2-5p targeting MALT1 and ebv-miR-BHRF1-3 in the circulation of patients with multiple sclerosis. Clin Exp Immunol. 2017;189(1):120–126. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/cei.12954.
- Vistbakka J, Sumelahti M-L, Lehtimäki T, et al. Evaluation of serum miR-191-5p, miR-24-3p, miR-128-3p, and miR-376c-3 in multiple sclerosis patients. Acta Neurol Scand. 2018; 138(2):130–136. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/ane.12921.
- Regev K, Healy BC, Paul A, et al. Identification of MS-specific serum miRNAs in an international multicenter study. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm. 2018; 5(5):e491. doi:https://doi.org/10.1212/NXI.0000000000000491.
- Niwald M, Migdalska-Sęk M, Brzeziańska-Lasota E, et al. Evaluation of selected microRNAs expression in remission phase of multiple sclerosis and their potential link to cognition, depression, and disability. J Mol Neurosci. 2017;63(3–4):275–282. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s12031-017-0977-y.
- Sedeeq MS, El-Nahrery EMA, Shalaby N, et al. Micro-RNA-96 and interleukin-10 are independent biomarkers for multiple sclerosis activity. J Neurol Sci. 2019;403:92–96. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jns.2019.06.022.
- Liguori M, Nuzziello N, Licciulli F, et al. Combined microRNA and mRNA expression analysis in pediatric multiple sclerosis: an integrated approach to uncover novel pathogenic mechanisms of the disease. Hum Mol Genet. 2018;27(1):66–79. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/hmg/ddx385.
- Nuzziello N, Vilardo L, Pelucchi P, et al. Investigating the role of MicroRNA and transcription factor co-regulatory networks in multiple sclerosis pathogenesis. IJMS. 2018;19(11):3652. doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19113652.
- Selmaj I, Cichalewska M, Namiecinska M, et al. Global exosome transcriptome profiling reveals biomarkers for multiple sclerosis. Ann Neurol. 2017;81(5):703–717. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.24931.
- Ebrahimkhani S, Vafaee F, Young PE, et al. Exosomal microRNA signatures in multiple sclerosis reflect disease status. Sci Rep. 2017;7(1):14293. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-14301-3.
- Haghikia A, Haghikia A, Hellwig K, et al. Regulated microRNAs in the CSF of patients with multiple sclerosis: a case-control study. Neurology. 2012;79(22):2166–2170. doi:https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182759621.
- Zhang Z, Xue Z, Liu Y, et al. MicroRNA-181c promotes Th17 cell differentiation and mediates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Brain Behav Immun. 2018;70:305–314. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2018.03.011.
- Kramer S, Haghikia A, Bang C, et al. Elevated levels of miR-181c and miR-633 in the CSF of patients with MS: a validation study. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm. 2019;6(6):e623. doi:https://doi.org/10.1212/NXI.0000000000000623.
- Mandolesi G, De Vito F, Musella A, et al. miR-142-3p is a key regulator of IL-1β-dependent synaptopathy in neuroinflammation. J Neurosci. 2017;37(3):546–561. doi:https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0851-16.2016.
- Junker A, Krumbholz M, Eisele S, et al. MicroRNA profiling of multiple sclerosis lesions identifies modulators of the regulatory protein CD47. Brain. 2009;132(Pt 12):3342–3352. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awp300.
- Khademi M, Dring AM, Gilthorpe JD, et al. Intense inflammation and nerve damage in early multiple sclerosis subsides at older age: a reflection by cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers. PloS One. 2013;8(5):e63172. doi:https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0063172.
- Bruinsma IB, van Dijk M, Bridel C, et al. Regulator of oligodendrocyte maturation, miR-219, a potential biomarker for MS. J Neuroinflam. 2017;14(1):235. doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/s12974-017-1006-3.
- Liu Q, Gao Q, Zhang Y, et al. MicroRNA-590 promotes pathogenic Th17 cell differentiation through targeting Tob1 and is associated with multiple sclerosis. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2017;493(2):901–908. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2017.09.123.
- Quintana E, Ortega FJ, Robles-Cedeño R, et al. miRNAs in cerebrospinal fluid identify patients with MS and specifically those with lipid-specific oligoclonal IgM bands. Mult Scler. 2017;23(13):1716–1726. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/1352458516684213.
- Dutta R, Chomyk AM, Chang A, et al. Hippocampal demyelination and memory dysfunction are associated with increased levels of the neuronal microRNA miR-124 and reduced AMPA receptors. Ann Neurol. 2013;73(5) :637–645. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.23860.
- Tripathi A, Volsko C, Datta U, et al. Expression of disease-related miRNAs in white-matter lesions of progressive multiple sclerosis brains. Ann Clin Transl Neurol. 2019;6(5):854–862. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/acn3.750.
- Bennett J, Basivireddy J, Kollar A, et al. Blood-brain barrier disruption and enhanced vascular permeability in the multiple sclerosis model EAE. J Neuroimmunol. 2010; 229(1-2) :180–191. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroim.2010.08.011.
- Suárez Y, Sessa WC. MicroRNAs as novel regulators of angiogenesis. Circ Res. 2009;104(4):442–454. doi:https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.108.191270.
- Reijerkerk A, Lopez-Ramirez MA, van Het Hof B, et al. MicroRNAs regulate human brain endothelial cell-barrier function in inflammation: implications for multiple sclerosis. J Neurosci. 2013;33(16):6857–6863. doi:https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3965-12.2013.
- Lopez-Ramirez MA, Wu D, Pryce G, et al. MicroRNA-155 negatively affects blood-brain barrier function during neuroinflammation. Faseb J. 2014; 28(6):2551–2565. doi:https://doi.org/10.1096/fj.13-248880.
- Ingwersen J, Menge T, Wingerath B, et al. Natalizumab restores aberrant miRNA expression profile in multiple sclerosis and reveals a critical role for miR-20b. Ann Clin Transl Neurol. 2015;2(1):43–55. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/acn3.152.
- Mameli G, Arru G, Caggiu E, et al. Natalizumab therapy modulates miR-155, miR-26a and proinflammatory cytokine expression in MS patients. PloS One. 2016;11(6):e0157153. doi:https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0157153.
- Muñoz-Culla M, Irizar H, Castillo-Triviño T, et al. Blood miRNA expression pattern is a possible risk marker for natalizumab-associated progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in multiple sclerosis patients. Mult Scler. 2014;20(14):1851–1859. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/1352458514534513.
- Meira M, Sievers C, Hoffmann F, et al. MiR-126: a novel route for natalizumab action? Mult Scler. 2014;20(10):1363–1370. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/1352458514524998.
- Bergman P, Piket E, Khademi M, et al. Circulating miR-150 in CSF is a novel candidate biomarker for multiple sclerosis. Neurol-Neuroimmunol Neuroinflam. 2016; 3(3).
- Michell‐Robinson MA, Moore CS, Healy LM, et al. Effects of fumarates on circulating and CNS myeloid cells in multiple sclerosis. Ann Clin Transl Neurol. 2016;3(1):27–41.
- Yushchenko M, Mäder M, Elitok E, et al. Interferon-beta-1 b decreased matrix metalloproteinase-9 serum levels in primary progressive multiple sclerosis. J Neurol. 2003; 250(10):1224–1228. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-003-0191-4.
- Jin S, Kawanokuchi J, Mizuno T, et al. Interferon-beta is neuroprotective against the toxicity induced by activated microglia. Brain Res. 2007;1179:140–146. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2007.08.055.
- Hecker M, Thamilarasan M, Koczan D, et al. MicroRNA expression changes during interferon-beta treatment in the peripheral blood of multiple sclerosis patients. Int J Mol Sci. 2013;14(8):16087–16110. doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms140816087.
- Ehtesham N, Khorvash F, Kheirollahi M. miR-145 and miR20a-5p potentially mediate pleiotropic effects of interferon-beta through mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathway in multiple sclerosis patients. J Mol Neurosci. 2017;61(1):16–24. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s12031-016-0851-3.
- Manna I, Iaccino E, Dattilo V, et al. Exosome-associated miRNA profile as a prognostic tool for therapy response monitoring in multiple sclerosis patients . Faseb J. 2018;32(8):4241–4246. doi:https://doi.org/10.1096/fj.201701533R.
- Lalive PH, Neuhaus O, Benkhoucha M, et al. Glatiramer acetate in the treatment of multiple sclerosis: emerging concepts regarding its mechanism of action. CNS Drugs. 2011; 25(5) :401–414. doi:https://doi.org/10.2165/11588120-000000000-00000.
- Waschbisch A, Atiya M, Linker RA, et al. Glatiramer acetate treatment normalizes deregulated microRNA expression in relapsing remitting multiple sclerosis. PloS One. 2011;6(9):e24604. doi:https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0024604.
- Thamilarasan M, Hecker M, Goertsches RH, et al. Glatiramer acetate treatment effects on gene expression in monocytes of multiple sclerosis patients. J Neuroinflam. 2013; 10(1):126. doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/1742-2094-10-126.
- Brinkmann V, Billich A, Baumruker T, et al. Fingolimod (FTY720): discovery and development of an oral drug to treat multiple sclerosis. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2010;9(11):883–897. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/nrd3248.
- Eftekharian MM, Komaki A, Mazdeh M, et al. Expression profile of selected microRNAs in the peripheral blood of multiple sclerosis patients: a multivariate statistical analysis with ROC curve to find new biomarkers for fingolimod. J Mol Neurosci. 2019;68(1):153–161. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s12031-019-01294-z.
- Mazdeh M, Kordestani H, Komaki A, et al. Assessment of expression profile of microRNAs in multiple sclerosis patients treated with fingolimod. J Mol Neurosci. 2020;70(8):1274–1278. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s12031-020-01537-4.
- Waubant E. Improving outcomes in multiple sclerosis through early diagnosis and effective management. Prim Care Companion Cns Disord. 2012;14(5). doi:https://doi.org/10.4088/PCC.11016co2cc.
- Kreth S, Hübner M, Hinske LC. MicroRNAs as clinical biomarkers and therapeutic tools in perioperative medicine. Anesth Anal. 2018; 126(2):670–681. doi:https://doi.org/10.1213/ANE.0000000000002444.
- Regev K, Paul A, Healy B, et al. Comprehensive evaluation of serum microRNAs as biomarkers in multiple sclerosis. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm. 2016;3(5):e267. doi:https://doi.org/10.1212/NXI.0000000000000267.
- Ebrahimkhani S, Vafaee F, Young PE, et al. Exosomal microRNA signatures in multiple sclerosis reflect disease status. Sci Rep. 2017;7(1):1–10. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-14301-3.