References
- Alexander, D. (2014). Social media disaster risk reduction and crisis management. Science and Engineering Ethics, 20(3), 717–733. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s11948-013-9502-z
- Bhanot, S. (2020, March 20). Why are people ignoring expert warnings? Psychological reactance. Behavioral Scientist. https://behavioralscientist.org/why-are-people-ignoring-expert-warnings-psychological-reactance-coronavirus-covid-19/ [Google Scholar]
- Chen, H., Atkin, D., & Jia, Q. (2021, May). Does exposure to risk communication about novel Coronavirus pneumonia (COVID-19) predict protective behaviors? Testing the moderating role of optimistic bias. Paper presented at ICA, Virtual.
- Chon, M., & Park, H. (2019). Predicting public support for government actions in a public health crisis: Testing fear, organization-public relationship, and behavioral intention in the framework of the situational theory of problem solving. Health Communication, 36(4), 476–486. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2019.1700439
- Christensen, S. R., Pilling, E. B., Eyring, J. B., Dickerson, G., Sloan, C. D., & Magnusson, B. M. (2020). Political and personal reactions to COVID-19 during initial weeks of social distancing in the United States. PLoSONE, 15(9), 1–16. doi:https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0239693.
- Christner, N., Sticker, R. M., Soldner, L., Mammen, M., & Paulus, M. (2020). Prevention for oneself or others? Psychological and social factors that explain social distancing during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Health Psychology, (1), 135910532098079. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105320980793. Advance online publication.
- Conrow, J. (2020, October. 1) “What drove the Covid-19 misinformation “infodemic.” Cornell Alliance for Science. https://allianceforscience.cornell.edu/blog/2020/10/what-drove-the-covid-misinformation-infodemic/
- Fairchild, A., Gostin, L., & Bayer, R. (2020). Vexing, veiled, and inequitable: Social distancing and the “Rights” divide in the age of COVID-19. The American Journal of Bioethics, 20(7), 55–61. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2020.1764142
- Fox, J., & Holt, L. F. (2018). Fear of isolation and perceived affordances: The spiral of silence on social networking sites regarding police discrimination. Mass Communication and Society, 21(5), 533–554. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2018.1442480
- Gearhart, S., & Zhang, W. (2014). Gay bullying and online opinion expression: Testing spiral of silence in the social media environment. Social Science Computer Review, 32(1), 18–36. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439313504261
- Gearhart, S., & Zhang, W. (2018). Same spiral, different day? Testing the spiral of silence across issue types. Communication Research, 45(1), 34–54. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650215616456
- Glynn, C. J., Hayes, A. F., & Shanahan, J. (1997). Perceived support for one’s opinions and willingness to speak out: A meta-analysis of survey studies on the “spiral of the silence.” Public Opinion Quarterly, 61(3), 452–463. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1086/297808
- Graham, D. A. (2021, April 27). It’s not vaccine hesitancy. It’s COVID-19 denialism. The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2021/04/its-not-vaccine-hesitancy-its-covid-denialism/618724/
- Grunig, J. E. (1989). Sierra Club study shows who become activists. Public Relations Review, 15(3), 3–24. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/S0363-8111(89)80001-3
- Grunig, J. E. (1997). A situational theory of publics: Conceptual history, recent challenges, and new research. In D. Moss, T. MacManus, & D. Vercic (Eds.), Public relations research: An international perspective (pp. 3–48). International Thomson Business Press.
- Hanson, J. A., & Benedict, J. A. (2002). Using the health belief model to examine older adults’ food-handling behaviors. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 34(Suppl.), S25–S30. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/S1499-4046(06)60308-4
- Hayes, A. F. (2007). Exploring the forms of self-censorship: On the spiral of silence and the use of opinion expression avoidance strategies. Journal of Communications, 57(4), 785–802. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2007.00368.x
- Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. Guilford Press.
- Hinton, P. R., Brownlow, C., McMurray, I., & Cozen, B. (2004). SPSS explained. Routledge.
- Ho, S. S., & McLeod, D. M. (2008). Social-psychological influences on opinion expression in face-to-face and computer-mediated communication. Communication Research, 35(2), 190–207. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650207313159
- Jiang, J., Chen, E., Yan, S., Lerman, K., & Ferrara, E. (2020). Political polarization drives online conversations about COVID-19 in the United States. Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies, 2(3), 200–211. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/hbe2.202
- Kim, H. K., & Niederdeppe, J. (2013). The role of emotional response during an H1N1 influenza pandemic on a college campus. Journal of Public Relations Research, 25(1), 30–50. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/1062726X.2013.739100
- Kim, J.-N. (2006). Communicant activeness, cognitive entrepreneurship, and a situational theory of problem solving. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland.
- Kim, J.-N., & Grunig, J. E. (2011). Problem solving and communicative action: A Situational Theory of Problem Solving. Journal of Communication, 61(1), 120–149. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2010.01529.x
- Kim, J.-N., Shen, H., & Morgan, S. E. (2011). Information behaviors and problem chain recognition effect: Applying situational theory of problem solving in organ donation issues. Health Communication, 26(2), 171–184. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2010.544282
- Kim, J.-N. (2011). Public segmentation using situational theory of problem solving: Illustrating summation method and testing segmented public profiles. Prism, 8. http://www.prismjournal.org/homepage.html
- Lee, H., Oshita, T., Oh, H. J., & Hove, T. (2014). When do people speak out? Integrating the spiral of silence and the situational theory of problem solving. Journal of Public Relations Research, 26(3), 185–199. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/1062726X.2013.864243
- Li, J., Harrison, S., Qiao, S., & Li, X. (2019). Utility of theory to explain village doctors’ willingness to treat people living with HIV in Rural China. Journal of Health Communication, 24(2), 174–182. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2019.1587112
- Li, R. (2021). Fear of COVID-19: What causes fear and how individuals cope with it. Health Communication, (1), 1–10. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2021.1901423
- Lin, C. A., & Salwen, M. B. (1997). Predicting the spiral of silence on a controversial public issue. The Howard Journal of Communications, 8(1), 129–141. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/10646179709361747
- Matthes, J., Morrison, K. R., & Schemer, C. (2010). A spiral of silence for some: Attitude certainty and the expression of political minority opinions. Communication Research, 37(6), 774–800. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650210362685
- McKeever, B. W., McKeever, R., Holton, A. E., & Li, J. (2016). Silent majority: Childhood vaccinations and antecedents to communicative action. Mass Communication and Society, 19(4), 476–498. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2016.1148172
- McKeever, B. W. (2013). From awareness to advocacy: Understanding nonprofit communication, participation, and support. Journal of Public Relations Research, 25(4), 307–328. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/1062726X.2013.806868
- Moore, R. C., Lee, A., Hancock, J. T., Halley, M., & Linos, E., (2020). Age-related differences in experiences with social distancing at the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic: A computational and content analytic investigation of natural language from a social media survey. JMIR Human Factors, 8(2) doi:https://doi.org/10.2196/26043 .
- Nager, R. H., Vogel, R. I., Gollust, S. E., Rothman, A. J., Fowler, E. F., Yzer, M. C. et al. (2020). Public perceptions of conflicting information surrounding COVID-19: Results from a nationally representative survey of U.S. adults. PLoS One, 15(10), 1–18.
- Neilsen, R. S., Fletcher, R., Newman, N., Brennen, J., & Howard, P. N. (2020). Navigating the infodemic: How people in six countries access and rate news and information about coronavirus. Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism. https://www.politico.eu/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Navigating-theCoronavirus-infodemic.pdf
- Neuwirth, K., Frederick, E., & Mayo, C. (2007). The spiral of silence and fear of isolation. Journal of Communication, 57(3), 450–468. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2007.00352.x
- Noelle-Neumann, E. (1974). The Spiral of Silence: A theory of public opinion. Journal of Communication, 24(2), 43–51. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1974.tb00367.x
- O’Connor, A. M., & Evans, A. D. (2020). Dishonesty during a pandemic: The concealment of COVID-19 information. Journal of Health Psychology, 1–10. Advance online publication.
- Pew Research Center. (2020). Public opinion about coronavirus is more politically divided in U.S than in other advanced economies. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/10/28/public-opinion-about-coronavirus-is-more-politically-divided-in-u-s-than-in-other-advanced-economies/
- Ranjit, Y. R., Shin, H., First, J. M., & Houston, J. B. (2021). COVID-19 protective model: The role of threat perceptions and informational cues in influencing behavior. Journal of Risk Research, 24(3–4), 449–465. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/13669877.2021.1887328
- Rao, A., Bellur, S., & Atkin, D. (2021, May). Visual framing of COVID-19 news and its impact on health and political outcomes. Paper presented at AEJMC Midwinter Conference, Norman, OK.
- Salmon, C. T., & Neuwirth, K. (1990). Perceptions of opinion “climates” and willingness to discuss the issue of abortion. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 67(3), 567–577. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/107769909006700312.
- Scheufele, D. A., & Moy, P. (2000). Twenty-five years of the spiral of silence: A conceptual review and empirical outlook. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 12(1), 335–354. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/107769909006700312.
- Soffer, O., & Gordoni, G. (2018). Opinion expression via user comments on news websites: Analysis through the perspective of spiral of silence. Information, Communication, & Society, 21(3), 388–403. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2017.1281991
- World Health Organization. (2020). Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) advice for the public. https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/advice-for-public
- Wu, T.-Y., & Atkin, D. (2018). To comment or not to comment: Examining the influences of anonymity and social support on one’s willingness to express in online news discussion. New Media & Society, 20(12), 4512–4532. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444818776629
- Wu, T.-Y., Xu, X., & Atkin, D. (2020). The alternatives to being silent: Exploring opinion expression avoidance strategies for discussing politics on Facebook. Internet Research, 30(6), 1709–1729. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1108/INTR-06-2018-0284
- Zhang, Y., Jiang, B., Yuan, J., & Tao, Y. (2020). The impact of social distancing and epicenter lockdown on the COVID-19 epidemic in mainland China: A data-driven SEIQR model study. medRxiv.