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ARTICLES

Evaluating Ghana’s Intelligence Oversight Regime

REFERENCES

  • Ian Leigh, “More Closely Watching the Spies: Three Decades of Experiences,” in Loch K. Johnson, Hans Born, and Ian Leigh, eds., Who’s Watching the Spies?: Establishing Intelligence Service Accountability (Washington, DC: Potomac Books, 2005), pp. 3–11, at p. 3.
  • Examples include, U.S. Congress, Church and Pike Committees (1975–1976) and Senate inquiry on the CIA’s Torture Program (2014), Hope’s inquiry in Australia (1976–1977, 1984–1985), and the UK’s Chilcot Inquiry (2009–2016).
  • Peter Gill, “Democratic and Parliamentary Accountability of Intelligence Services After September 11th,” Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF), Working Paper No.103 (Geneva: DCAF, 2003), p. 1. For instance, in Spain, Brazil, Columbia, and post-Soviet states, see Ian Leigh, “More Closely Watching the Spies,” pp. 4–5; Andrea Giménez-Salinas, “The Spanish Intelligence Services,” in Jean P. Brodeur, Peter Gill, and Denis Tollborg, eds., Democracy, Law and Security: Internal Security Services in Contemporary Europe (Ashgate, UK: Aldershot, 2003), pp. 66–78; Marco Cepik, Carlos Brandão, and Priscila Antunes, “The New Brazilian Intelligence Law: An Institutional Assessment,” paper presented to the Centre for Hemispheric Defense Studies, Washington, DC (Washington, DC: Centre for Hemispheric Defense Studies, 2001); Alexander H. Joffe, “Dismantling Intelligence Agencies,” Crime, Law & Social change, Vol. 32, 1999, pp. 325–346; Steven C. Boraz, “Establishing Democratic Control of Intelligence in Colombia,” International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence, Vol. 19, No.1, Spring 2006, pp. 84–109; Adrezej Rzeplinski, “Security Services in Poland and their Oversight,” in Jean P. Brodeur, Peter Gill, and Denis Tollborg, eds., Democracy, Law and Security: Internal Security Services in Contemporary Europe.
  • Chris Fergusson and Jeffrey O. Isima, eds., Providing Security for People: Enhancing Security Through Police, Justice, and Intelligence Reform in Africa, (Shrivenham, UK: Global Facilitation Network for Security Sector Reform, 2004); Johnny Kwadjo, “Changing Intelligence Dynamics in Africa,” in Sandy Africa and Johnny Kwadjo, eds., Changing Intelligence Dynamics in Africa (GFN-SSR and ASSN), pp. 95–124, at p. 95.
  • Emmanuel Kwesi Aning, Emma Birinkorang, and Ernest Ansah Lartey, “The Process and Mechanisms of Developing a Democratic Intelligence Culture in Ghana,” in Philip H. J. Davies and Kristian C. Gustafson, eds., Intelligence Elsewhere (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2013), pp. 199–217, at p. 199.
  • See Michael Brzoska, “Development Donors and Concept of Security Sector Reforms,” Occasional Papers, No. 4 (Geneva: Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces [DCAF], 2003), p. 4; Joseph Legwaila, “Security Sector Reform in Africa: Relevance to Peace Building,” in Security Sector Reform: Its Relevance for Conflict Prevention, Peace Building, and Development, United Nations Office at Geneva (UNOG)-DCAF, ed., pp. 34–38 (Geneva: DCAF, 2003); Anicia Lala, “Picturing the Landscape: Police, Justice, Penal and Intelligence Reform in Africa,” in Chris Fergusson and Jeffrey O. Isima, eds., Providing Security for People—Enhancing Security through Police, Justice and Intelligence Reform in Africa, pp. 3–18, at p. 14.
  • Daniel Bendix and Ruth Stanley, Security Sector Reform in Africa: The Promise and the Practise of a New Donor Approach (South Africa: African Centre for the Constructive Resolution of Disputes [ACCORD], 2004), p. 8.
  • Robin Luckham, “Democratic Strategies for Security in Transition and Conflict,” in Gavin Cawthra and Robin Luckham, eds., Governing Insecurity: Democratic Control of Military and Civilian Establishments in Transitional Democracies (London and New York: Zed Books, 2003), pp. 3–28, at p. 14.
  • Johnny Kwadjo, “Changing Intelligence Dynamics in Africa,” p. 95.
  • Eboe Hutchful, “Pulling Back from the Brink: Ghana’s Experience,” in Gavin Cawthra and Robin Luckham, eds., Governing Insecurity: Democratic Control of Military and Civilian Establishments in Transitional Democracies, pp. 78–101, at pp. 81–82.
  • Benjamin Kunbour, “Sources of Parliamentary Power and Competency in the Security Sector,” presentation at the Workshop on Parliamentary Oversight of the Security Sector, 7–8 July 2006, organized by the African Security Dialogue and Research (Accra: ASDR, 2006), www.africansecuritynetwork.org
  • Steven Boraz, “Establishing Democratic Control”; Pat M. Holt, Secret Intelligence and Public Policy: A Dilemma of Democracy (Washington, DC: CQ Press, 1995), p. 3.
  • Michael M. Andregg and Peter Gill, “Comparing the Democratization of Intelligence,” Intelligence and National Security, Vol. 29, No. 4, 2014, pp. 487–497.
  • See Steve Tsang ed., Intelligence and Human Rights in the Era of Global Terrorism (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2008); Ian Leigh, “More Closely Watching the Spies,” p. 5; Richard J. Aldrich, “Whitehall and the Iraq War: The UK’s Four Intelligence Enquiries,” Irish Studies in International Affairs, Vol 16, 2005, pp. 73–88; BBC News, “Edward Snowden: Leaks That Exposed US Spy Programme,” 17 January 2014.
  • “BNI is an Outlaw Organization and Should Be Scrapped,” Joy FM Debate Series, 12 May 2016; “BNI is a Lawless Institution—Ace Ankomah,” Ghana Web, 4 April 2016; Author interview with Justice George Yeboah, Human Rights Court, High Court of Ghana, 5 May 2016.
  • “Withdraw Spy Bill Now—Occupy Ghana,” General News, Citifmonline, 24 February 2016.
  • Emmanuel Kwesi Aning, Emma Birikorang, and Ernest Ansah Lartey, “Democratic Intelligence Culture in Ghana,” p. 204.
  • Interview with Kofi Bentum Quantson, former National Security Coordinator and Director, Bureau of National Investigations, Ghana, 11 May 2016.
  • Republic of Ghana, “Anti-Money Laundering Act 2008.”
  • Republic of Ghana, “Economic and Organized Crime Office Act 2010.”
  • Republic of Ghana, “1992 Constitution,” Article 83 (1); Republic of Ghana, “Security and Intelligence Agencies Act 1996,” pp. 3–4.
  • Dickson O. Bonsu, “Role of National Security Council,” Presentation at the Third Parliamentary Training Workshop, 19–20 March 2007, organized by the African Security Dialogue and Research (Accra: ASDR, 2007).
  • Eboe Hutchful, “Ghana,” in Alan Bryden, Boubacar N’Diaye, and Funmi Olonisakin, eds., Challenges of Security Sector Governance in West Africa (Geneva: Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces, 2008), pp. 111–131, at p. 113.
  • Kofi Bentum Quantson, National Security—The Dilemma, 2nd ed. (Accra: NAPASVIL Ventures, 2006), p. 154.
  • Johnny Kwadjo, “Changing Intelligence Dynamics in Africa,” p. 104.
  • Interview by Author, 28 April 2016.
  • Republic of Ghana, “Security and Intelligence Agencies Act 1996,” p. 8.
  • Kofi Bentum Quantson, National Security—The Dilemma, p. 153.
  • MUSEC was added after the creation of Municipalities between the Regions and the Districts.
  • Republic of Ghana, “Security and Intelligence Agencies Act 1996,” p. 6.
  • Johnny Kwadjo, “Changing Intelligence Dynamics in Africa,” p. 118.
  • John K. Dogba, “Bureau of National Investigations,” Presentation at Workshop on Capacity Building for Members of the Parliamentary Select Committee on Defence and Interior and National Stakeholders, 17–19 April 2009 (Accra: ASDR, 2009), www.africansecuritynetwork.org
  • Mathieu Deflem, “Law Enforcement in British Colonial Africa: A Comparative Analysis of Imperial Policing in Nyasaland, the Gold Coast, and Kenya,” Police Studies, Vol. 17, No. 1, 1994, pp. 45–68; Anthony Clayton, “Law Enforcement and Colonial Police Forces,” in Anthony Clayton and David Killingray, eds., Khaki and Blue: Military and Police in British Colonial Africa (Athens, OH: Ohio University Center for International Studies, 1989), pp. 12–26; David Killingray, “Guarding the Extending Frontier: Policing the Gold Coast, 1865–1913,” in Policing the Empire: Government, Authority and Control, 1830–1940 (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press,1991), pp. 106–125.
  • Three World War II veterans were killed during a protest to petition the Governor for outstanding war benefits.
  • Richard Rathbone, “Political Intelligence and Policing in Ghana in the Late 1940s and 1950s,” in Policing and Decolonization Politics, Nationalism and the Police, 1917–1963 (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1992), pp. 84–104, at p. 84.
  • Ibid., pp. 84–102.
  • Kofi Bentum Quantson, National Security—The Dilemma, p. 24; Simon Baynham, The Military and Politics in Nkrumah’s Ghana (Boulder, CO and London: Westview Press, 1988), pp. 136–137.
  • Johnny Kwadjo, “Changing Intelligence Dynamics in Africa,” p. 103.
  • Eboe Hutchful, “Restructuring Civil-Military Relations and the Collapse of Democracy in Ghana, 1979–81,” African Affaires, Vol. 96, 1997, pp. 535–560.
  • See Rory Cormac, Confronting the Colonies: British Intelligence and Counterinsurgency (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013). Cormac outlines British intelligence within the Colonies.
  • Johnny Kwadjo, “Changing Intelligence Dynamics in Africa,” p. 99.
  • Interview by Author, 28 April 2016.
  • Emmanuel Aning, Emma Birikorang, Ernest Ansah Lartey, “Democratic Intelligence Culture in Ghana,” p. 203.
  • Simon Baynham, The Military and Politics, p. 78; Kwesi Armah, Peace Without Power: Ghana’s Foreign Policy 1957–1966 (Accra: Ghana Universities Press, 2004), p. 22.
  • Kwesi Armah, Peace Without Power: Ghana’s Foreign Policy 1957–1966, p. 21.
  • Republic of Ghana, Nkrumah’s Subversion in Africa (Accra: Ghana Information Services, 1967), p. iii.
  • Republic of Ghana, Special Review 24th February 1966–31st December 1968 (Accra: Overseas Information Division, Ministry of External Affairs, 1969), p. 11.
  • Interview by Author, 14 June 2016.
  • Republic of Ghana, “Security and Intelligence Services Act 1996,” p. 6.
  • Interview by Author, 25 April 2016.
  • Ghana Armed Forces, Department of Defence Intelligence, Charter of the Defence Intelligence Service, GHQ1003/CDI, May 2001.
  • Simon Baynham, The Military and Politics, p. 131.
  • Republic of Ghana, Nkrumah’s Deception of Africa (Accra; Ghana Information Services, 1967), p. 2.
  • Ibid.
  • Simon Baynham, The Military and Politics, p. 131.
  • Roger S. Gocking, The History of Ghana (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2005), pp. 188–189; Emmanuel Aning, Emma Birikorang, and Ernest Ansah Lartey, “Democratic Intelligence Culture in Ghana,” p. 206.
  • Ghana Armed Forces, “Department of Defence Intelligence.”
  • Ibid.
  • Interview with Major General Francis Adu-Amanfoh, former Ghana Ambassador to Liberia and Chief of Defence Intelligence, 5 May 2016.
  • Ibid.
  • Republic of Ghana, “Security and Intelligence Services Act 1996,” p. 7.
  • Ibid.
  • Eboe Hutcful, “Ghana,” p. 113.
  • Marina Caparini, “Controlling and Overseeing Intelligence Services,” in Hans Born and Marina Caparini, eds., Democratic Control of Intelligence Services: Containing Rogue Elephants (Ashgate, UK:, 2007), p. 12.
  • Ibid., p.11.
  • Peter Gill, Policing Politics, p. 217.
  • Republic of Ghana, “Security and Intelligence Services Act 1996,” p. 8.
  • Kofi Bentum Quantson, National Security—The Dilemma, pp. 155–159.
  • Interview with Hon. Benjamin Kunbour, Minister for Defence, Ghana, 10 May 2016; Kofi Bentum Quantson, National Security—The Dilemma, p. 155.
  • “Ministry of National Security Created,” Ghana News Agency, 4 April 2006; Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative (CHRI), The Police, The People, The Politics: Police Accountability in Ghana (New Delhi: CHRI), p. 55.
  • Abass Daabu, “WikiLieaks Gives a Peek into Francis Poku’s Dismissal,” Myjoyonline News Editorial, 5 August 2011, http://edition.myjoyonline.com/pages/news/201109/72346.php, accessed 2 July 2016.
  • Interview by Author, 5 May 2016.
  • Interview by Author, 28 April 2016 and 2 May 2016.
  • Ian Leigh, “The UK’s Intelligence and Security Committee,” in Hans Born and Marina Caparini, eds., Democratic Control of Intelligence Services: Containing Rogue Elephants, pp. 177–194, at p. 178; Ian Leigh, “Intelligence and the Law in UK,” in Loch K. Johnson, ed., The Oxford Handbook of National Security Intelligence (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2012), pp. 640–656, at p. 644.
  • Interview with Adelaide Anno-Kumi, Chief Director, Ministry of the Interior, Ghana, 25 April 2016.
  • Godwin A. Allotey and Duke Mensah Opoku, “Interior Ministry Ordered to Supervise BNI, National Security,” General News Citifmonline, 16 June 2016, http://citifmonline.com/2016/06/16/interior-ministry-ordered-to-supervise-bni-national-security/ (accessed 1 July 2016).
  • Ian Leigh, “Intelligence and the Law in UK,” pp. 644–645; Hans Born and Ian Leigh, Making Intelligence Accountable, pp. 57–59.
  • Hans Born, “Parliamentary and External Oversight,” p. 166.
  • Hans Born and Ian Leigh, Making Intelligence Accountable, p. 68; Marina Caparini, “Controlling and Overseeing Intelligence Services,” p. 12.
  • Republic of Ghana, “Security and Intelligence Services Act 1996,” p. 8.
  • Interview by Author, 12 May 2016.
  • This is applied in Hungarian intelligence law; see “Hungarian National Security Services’ Act 1995,” Act 125, Section 11.
  • Thomas C. Bruneau and Steven Boraz, “Intelligence Reform: Balancing Democracy and Effectiveness,” in Thomas C. Bruneau and Steven Boraz, eds., Reforming Intelligence: Obstacles to Democratic Control and Effectiveness (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2007.), pp. 1–27, at p. 14; Benjamin, Kunbour, “Parliamentary Oversight,” p. 9.
  • Marina Caparini, “Controlling and Overseeing Intelligence Services,” p. 13; Ian Leigh, “The UK’s Intelligence and Security Committee,” p. 179.
  • Johnny Kwadjo, “Changing Intelligence Dynamics in Africa,” p. 108.
  • Emmanuel Kwesi Aning and Ernest Ansah Lartey, “Parliamentary Oversight of the Security Sector: Lessons from Ghana,” Human Rights Quarterly, Vol. 17, No. 3, 1995, pp. 556–573.
  • Emmanuel Kwesi Aning, “Managing the Security Sector,” in Baffour Agyeman-Duah, ed., Ghana: Governance in the Fourth Republic (Accra: Ghana Centre for Democratic Development [CDD – Ghana], 2008), p. 127.
  • Republic of Ghana, Standing Orders of Parliament (Accra: Ghana Publishing Company, Assembly Press, 2000), p. 106.
  • Interview with Hon F. Fritz Baffour, Member of Parliament and Chairman of the Parliamentary Select Committee on Defence and Interior, 6th Parliament of Fourth Republic of Ghana, 26 April 2016.
  • Hans Born and Ian Leigh, Making Intelligence Accountable, pp. 80–85.
  • Republic of Ghana, 1992 Constitution of Ghana, Article 187(2).
  • Republic of Ghana, Standing Orders of Parliament, p. 110.
  • Republic of Ghana, 1992 Constitution of Ghana, Article 178, 179.
  • Interview by Author, 26 April 2016.
  • Assembly of Western European Union (WEU), “New Challenges Facing European Intelligence—Reply to the Annual Report of the Council,” Document A/1775, 4 June 2002, p. 20, http://www.assembly-eu.org/en/documents/sessions_ordinaires/rpt/2002/1775.html
  • Republic of Ghana, “Security and Intelligence Services Act,” p. 8.
  • Hon. Benjamin Kunbour, “Sources of Parliamentary Power”; Emmanuel Kwesi Aning, “Managing the Security Sector,” p. 127.
  • Finance Committee, “Report of the Finance Committee on the 2013 Budget Estimates of the Office of Government Machinery,” Committees Reports, Parliament of Ghana, http://www.parliament.gh/publications/44/518
  • Ibid.
  • Interview by Author, 10 May 2016.
  • Hans Born, “Parliamentary and External Oversight,” p. 175.
  • Interview by Author, 26 April 2016.
  • Ibid.
  • Marina Caparini, “Controlling and Overseeing Intelligence Services,” pp. 14–15.
  • Emmanuel Kwesi Aning, Emma Birinkorang, and Ernest Ansah Lartey, “Democratic Intelligence Culture in Ghana,” p. 212.
  • Republic of Ghana, “Security and Intelligence Services Act,” p. 12.
  • Ian Leigh, “The Legal Norms of the Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF) and Security Sector Reform,” paper presented at the 5th International Security Reform, “Setting the 21st Century Security Agenda,” Zurich, 14–16 October 2002 (Zurich: DCAF, 2002), p. 11.
  • Interview with Justice Elizabeth Ankumah, High Court Judge, Judicial Service of Ghana, 3 May 2016.
  • Interview with George Yeboah, 5 May 2016.
  • Republic of Ghana, “Security and Intelligence Services Act 1996,” pp. 9–11.
  • Effah Nkrabea Darteh, “BNI is an Outlaw Organization and should therefore be Scrapped,” Debate Series, 4th Joy Debate held on Thursday, 12 May 2016, Alisa Hotel, Accra.
  • Interview by Author, 12 May 2016.
  • Ibid.
  • Greg Hannah, Kelvin O’Brien, and Andrew Rathmell, Intelligence and Security Legislation (Cambridge, UK: RAND Europe, 2005), p. 13.
  • See “BNI Asked to Allow Access to Alleged Pirates,” Graphic Online, 20 February 2015; “Court Orders BNI to Allow Counsel During Interrogation,” Ghana News Agency, 18 August 2009.
  • Interview with Justice Robin Batu, High Court Judge, Judicial Service of Ghana, 5 May 2016.
  • “BNI must Re-think its Powers, Duties Under the Law—Lecturer,” General News, 24 April 2016.
  • CDD–Ghana, “Growth of Democracy in Ghana Despite Economic Dissatisfaction: A Power Alternation Bonus?” Survey Report, CDD-Ghana Research Report Paper No. 11 (Accra: CDD–Ghana, 2002); African Peer Review Mechanism (APRM), “Country Review Report of the Republic of Ghana June 2005,” African Peer Review Mechanism (Midrand, South Africa: APRM, 2005), http://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Project-and-Operations/00798283-EN-APRM-GHANA-REVIEW-REPORT-JUNE-2005.PDF
  • The CDD survey revealed 73 percent executive influence of the judiciary, while 57 percent in the APRM survey showed the judiciary lacked independence.
  • Monica Mark, “Ghana’s Top Undercover Journalist Masters to Expose Corruption,” Guardian Africa Network, The Guardian, 24 September 2015, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/24/anas-aremeya-anas-ghana-corruption, accessed 10 June 2016; “Ghana Suspends High Court Judges After Anas Aremeyaw Anas’ Film,” BBC News, 6 October 2015.
  • Interview with R. Batu, 5 May 2016.
  • Interview by Author, 25 April 2016.
  • Republic of Ghana, “Security and Intelligence Services Act 1996,” p. 7.
  • Hans Born and Ian Leigh, Making Intelligence Accountable, p. 46.
  • For instance, the United States, Canada, South Africa, and Australia.
  • Allan Gyngell and Michael Wesley, Making Australian Foreign Policy (Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 2007), p. 129.
  • CHRI, “The Police, The People, The Politics,” p. 46.
  • Marina Caparini, “Controlling and Overseeing Intelligence Services,” p. 12.
  • Republic of Ghana, BNI Regulations 2015.
  • Interview by Author, 12 May 2015.
  • Interview by Author, 25 April 2016.
  • Marina Caparini, “Controlling and Overseeing Intelligence Services,” p. 12.
  • Bjorn Müller-Wille, “Intelligence and Democratic Accountability: A Blessing, not a Curse,” European Security,Vol. 15, No. 4, 2006b, pp. 491–506.
  • Philip Heymann, “Rules and Compliance of Intelligence Agencies,” working paper, Project on Justice in Times of Transition, Harvard University, Boston, 2002.
  • Interview by Author, 14 June 2016.
  • Thomas C. Bruneau and Steven Boraz, “Intelligence Reform: Balancing Democracy and Effectiveness,” pp. 16–17.
  • Republic of Ghana, “Security and Intelligence Services Act,” p. 13. 

  • Hans Born and Ian Leigh, Making Intelligence Accountable, p. 113.
  • Interview by Author, 14 June 2016.
  • Republic of Ghana, “Report of the Auditor-General on the Public Accounts of Ghana-Ministries, Departments and Other Agencies of the Central Government for the Year Ended 31 December 2011” (Accra: Auditor General’s Department).
  • Hans Born and Ian Leigh, Making Intelligence Accountable, p. 113.
  • Abdul-Gafaru Abdulai, “Political Context Study—Ghana,” Power and Civic Action Research Project Report (Leeds and Accra: Human Rights, Power and Civic Action Research Project, 2009), http://www.polis.leeds.ac.uk/assets/files/research/research-projects/abdulai-ghana-political-context-study-jan09.pdf
  • Interview with Dr. Isaac Anang, Director Human Rights, Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice, Ghana, 10 May 2016.
  • Republic of Ghana, 1992 Constitution, Article 218 (1); Republic of Ghana, Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice Act, Section 7(1).
  • Interview with Richard Quayson, Acting Commissioner, Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice, Ghana, 10 May 2016.
  • Richard J. Aldrich, “Regulation by Revelation? Intelligence, The Media and Transparency,” in Robert Dover and Michael S. Goodman, eds., Spinning Intelligence: Why Intelligence Needs the Media, Why the Media Needs Intelligence (New York: Columbia University Press, 2009), pp. 13–35, at p. 14.
  • Abdul-Gafaru Abdulai and Gordon Crawford, “Consolidating Democracy in Ghana: Progress and Prospects?” Democratization, Vol. 17, No. 1, 2010, pp. 26–27; Emmanuel Kwesi Aning, Emma Birinkorang, and Ernest Ansah Lartey, “Democratic Intelligence Culture in Ghana,” p. 214.
  • Akosua Darkwa, Nicholas Amponsah, and Evans Gyampoh, “Civil Society in a Changing Ghana: An Assessment of the Current State of Civil Society in Ghana,” CIVICUS: Civil Society Index Report for Ghana (Accra: Ghana Association of Private Voluntary Organisations in Development [GAPVOD]), p. 48.
  • Interview by Author, 3 May 2016.
  • “We Didn’t Ransack DI Offices—BNI,” General News, 22 May 2016.
  • “Avoid Intemperate Language on Airwaves—BNI,” General News, 8 July 2016.
  • Eboe Hutchful, “Ghana,” p.117.
  • ASDR, “Workshop Report on Capacity Building.”
  • Hans Born and Ian Leigh, Making Intelligence Accountable, p. 16.
  • Patrick Weller, “Politicisation and the Australian Public Service,” Australian Journal of Public Administration, Vol. 48, No. 2, 1989, pp. 369–381.
  • Interview with Dr. Emmanuel Kwesi Aning, Director, Faculty of Academic Affairs and Research, Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre, Ghana, 4 May 2016.
  • Emmanuel Kwesi Aning, Emma Birinkorang, and Ernest Ansah Lartey, “Democratic Intelligence Culture in Ghana,” p. 204.
  • Emmauel Gyimah-Boadi and Asmoah Y. Buabeng, “National Integrity Systems Country Study Report: Ghana,” National Integrity Systems, http://www.transparency.org/content/download/1649/8368/
  • Ian Leigh, “More Closely Watching the Spies,” p. 4.
  • Lauren Hutton, “Looking Beneath the Cloak: An Analysis of Intelligence Governance in South Africa,” Institute for Security Studies, Paper No. 154 (Pretoria: The Institute for Strategic Studies Africa, 2007), p. 12.
  • Interview with Emmanuel Kwesi Aning, 4 May 2016.
  • Interview by Author, 12 May 2016.
  • Johnny Kwadjo, “Changing Intelligence Dynamics in Africa,” p. 99; Simon Baynham, The Military and Politics, pp. 133–134; Kofin Bestum Quantson, National Security—The Dilemma, pp. 6–10.
  • Interview by Author, 12 May 2016.
  • Loch K. Johnson, “Governing in the Absence of Angels: On the Practice of Intelligence Accountability in the United States,” in Hans Born, Loch K. Johnson and Ian Leigh, eds.,Who’s Watching the Spies: Establishing Intelligence Service Accountability, pp. 57–78, at p. 68.
  • Daniel Baldino, “Watching the Watchmen,” in Glenn Hastedt, ed., Controlling Intelligence (London: Frank Cass, 1991), pp. 1–22, at p. 19.
  • Interview by Author, 13 May 2016.
  • Kofin Bestum Quantson, National Security—The Dilemma, p. 156.
  • Marina Caparini, “Controlling and Overseeing Intelligence Services,” p. 17; Elaine L. Halchin and Frederick M. Kaiser, “Congressional Oversight of Intelligence: Current Structure and Alternatives,” CRS Report for Congress, Congressional Research Service, Washington, DC, #7–7500.
  • Hon. Benjamin Kunbour, “Sources of Parliamentary Power.”
  • Interview with Hon. Osei Kyei-Mensah-Bonsu, Minority Leader, 6th Parliament of Fourth Republic of Ghana, 3 May 2016.
  • Ibid.
  • Emmanuel Kwesi Aning and Ernest Ansah Lartey, “Parliamentary Oversight of the Security Sector.”
  • David Omand, Securing the State (London and New York: Columbia University Press, 2010), p. 46.

  • Republic of Ghana, 1992 Constitution, Article 21(1).
  • Open Society Initiative for West Africa (OSIWA) and Institute for Democratic Governance (IDEG), “Ghana: Democracy and Political Participation” (South Africa: Open Society Initiative for West Africa), p. 45, http://www.gsdrc.org/document-library/ghana-democracy-and-political-participation/
  • Republic of Ghana, Public Records, Archives and Administrative Department Act, Act 535 of 1997.
  • Thomas C. Bruneau and Steven Boraz, “Intelligence Reform: Balancing Democracy and Effectiveness,” p. 14; Hon. Benjamin Kunbour, “Sources of Parliamentary Power.”
  • Hon. Benjamin Kunbour, “Sources of Parliamentary Power.”
  • Ibid.
  • Hon. Benjamin Kunbour, “Parliamentary Oversight of the Security Sector.”
  • Ibid.
  • Interview with Emmanuel Kwesi Aning, 4 May 2016.

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