A within-person theoretical perspective in sales research: outlining recommendations for adoption and consideration of boundary conditions

References

• Ahearne, Michael, Son K. Lam, John E. Mathieu, and Willy Bolander. 2010. “Why Are Some Salespeople Better at Adapting to Organizational Change?” Journal of Marketing 74 (3):65–79. doi: 10.1509/jmkg.74.3.65.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Atefi, Yashar, Michael Ahearne, James G. Maxham III, D. Todd Donavan, and Brad D. Carlson. 2018. “Does Selective Sales Force Training Work?” Journal of Marketing Research 55 (5):722–37. doi: 10.1177/0022243718803096.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bainter, Sierra A., and Andrea L. Howard. 2016. “Comparing Within-Person Effects from Multivariate Longitudinal Models.” Developmental Psychology 52 (12):1955–68. doi: 10.1037/dev0000215.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bandura, Albert. 1997. “Editorial.” American Journal of Health Promotion 12 (1):8–10. doi: 10.4278/0890-1171-12.1.8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bateman, Connie, and Sean Valentine. 2015. “The Impact of Salesperson Customer Orientation on the Evaluation of a Salesperson’s Ethical Treatment, Trust in the Salesperson, and Intentions to Purchase.” Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management 35 (2):125–42. doi: 10.1080/08853134.2015.1010538.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beattie, Stuart, Mohammed Fakehy, and Tim Woodman. 2014. “Examining the Moderating Effects of Time on Task and Task Complexity on the within Person Self-Efficacy and Performance Relationship.” Psychology of Sport and Exercise 15 (6):605–10. doi: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2014.06.007.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beattie, Stuart, David Lief, Mark Adamoulas, and Emily Oliver. 2011. “Investigating the Possible Negative Effects of Self-Efficacy upon Golf Putting Performance.” Psychology of Sport and Exercise 12 (4):434–41. doi: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2011.02.004.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beattie, Stuart, Tim Woodman, Mohammed Fakehy, and Chelsey Dempsey. 2016. “The Role of Performance Feedback on the Self-Efficacy–Performance Relationship.” Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology 5 (1):1–13. doi: 10.1037/spy0000051.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beck, J. Warren and Aaron M. Schmidt. 2012. “Taken Out of Context? Cross-Level Effects of Between-Person Self-Efficacy and Difficulty on the Within-Person Relationship of Self-Efficacy with Resource Allocation and Performance.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 119 (2):195–208.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beitelspacher, Lauren Skinner, Thomas L. Baker, Adam Rapp, and Dhruv Grewal. 2018. “Understanding the Long-Term Implications of Retailer Returns in Business-to-Business Relationships.” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 46 (2):252–72. doi: 10.1007/s11747-017-0553-6.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boichuk, Jeffrey P., Willy Bolander, Zachary R. Hall, Michael Ahearne, William J. Zahn, and Melissa Nieves. 2014. “Learned Helplessness among Newly Hired Salespeople and the Influence of Leadership.” Journal of Marketing 78 (1):95–111. doi: 10.1509/jm.12.0468.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bolander, Willy, Riley Dugan, and Eli Jones. 2017. “Time, Change, and Longitudinally Emergent Conditions: Understanding and Applying Longitudinal Growth Modeling in Sales Research.” Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management 37 (2):153–9. doi: 10.1080/08853134.2017.1314187.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bolander, Willy, William J. Zahn, Terry W. Loe, and Melissa Clark. 2017. “Managing New Salespeople’s Ethical Behaviors during Repetitive Failures: When Trying to Help Actually Hurts.” Journal of Business Ethics 144 (3):519–32. doi: 10.1007/s10551-015-2817-8.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bommaraju, Raghu, Michael Ahearne, Zachary R. Hall, Seshadri Tirunillai, and Son K. Lam. 2018. “The Impact of Mergers and Acquisitions on the Sales Force.” Journal of Marketing Research 55 (2):254–64. doi: 10.1509/jmr.16.0059.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bommaraju, Raghu, and Sebastian Hohenberg. 2018. “Self-Selected Sales Incentives: Evidence of Their Effectiveness, Persistence, Durability, and Underlying Mechanisms.” Journal of Marketing 82 (5):106–24. doi: 10.1509/jm.17.0002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Briggs, Elten, Fernando Jaramillo, and William A. Weeks. 2012. “The Influences of Ethical Climate and Organization Identity Comparisons on Salespeople and Their Job Performance.” Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management 32 (4):421–36. doi: 10.2753/PSS0885-3134320402.
   Google Scholar
• Busse, Christian, Andrew P. Kach, and Stephan M. Wagner. 2017. “Boundary Conditions: What They are, How to Explore Them, Why We Need Them, and When to Consider Them.” Organizational Research Methods 20 (4):574–609.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carter, W. Richard, Paul L. Nesbit, Richard J. Badham, Sharon K. Parker, and Li-Kuo Sung. 2016. “The Effects of Employee Engagement and Self-Efficacy on Job Performance: A Longitudinal Field Study.” The International Journal of Human Resource Management 29 (17):1–20.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Certo, S. Trevis, Michael C. Withers, and Matthew Semadeni. 2017. “A Tale of Two Effects: Using Longitudinal Data to Compare Within‐and Between‐Firm Effects.” Strategic Management Journal 38 (7):1536–56. doi: 10.1002/smj.2586.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chung, Doug J., and Das Narayandas. 2017. “Incentives versus Reciprocity: Insights from a Field Experiment.” Journal of Marketing Research 54 (4):511–24. doi: 10.1509/jmr.15.0174.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cowan, Daryl T., and Ian M. Taylor. 2015. “The Importance of Disaggregating Within-Person Changes and Individual Differences among Internalized Motives, Self-Esteem and Self-Efficacy.” Motivation and Emotion 39 (4):489–97. doi: 10.1007/s11031-014-9466-6.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curran, Patrick J., and Daniel J. Bauer. 2011. “The Disaggregation of Within-Person and Between-Person Effects in Longitudinal Models of Change.” Annual Review of Psychology 62 (1):583–619. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100356.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curran, Patrick J., Andrea L. Howard, Sierra A. Bainter, Stephanie T. Lane, and James S. McGinley. 2014. “The Separation of Between-Person and Within-Person Components of Individual Change over Time: A Latent Curve Model with Structured Residuals.” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 82 (5):879. doi: 10.1037/a0035297.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curran, Patrick J., Khawla Obeidat, and Diane Losardo. 2010. “Twelve Frequently Asked Questions about Growth Curve Modeling.” Journal of Cognition and Development: Official Journal of the Cognitive Development Society 11 (2):121–36. doi: 10.1080/15248371003699969.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dustin, Susan L., and Ariel R. Belasen. 2013. “The Impact of Negative Compensation Changes on Individual Sales Performance.” Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management 33 (4):403–17. doi: 10.2753/PSS0885-3134330404.
   Google Scholar
• Enders, Craig K., and Davood Tofighi. 2007. “Centering Predictor Variables in Cross-Sectional Multilevel Models: A New Look at an Old Issue.” Psychological Methods 12 (2):121. doi: 10.1037/1082-989X.12.2.121.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feng, Cong, and Scott A. Fay. 2016. “Inferring Salesperson Capability Using Stochastic Frontier Analysis.” Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management 36 (3):294–306. doi: 10.1080/08853134.2016.1166966.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischbach, Sarah. 2015. “Ethical Efficacy as a Measure of Training Effectiveness: An Application of the Graphic Novel Case Method versus Traditional Written Case Study.” Journal of Business Ethics 128 (3):603–15. doi: 10.1007/s10551-014-2118-7.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fournier, Christophe, John F. Tanner Jr, Lawrence B. Chonko, and Chris Manolis. 2010. “The Moderating Role of Ethical Climate on Salesperson Propensity to Leave.” Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management 30 (1):7–22. doi: 10.2753/PSS0885-3134300101.
   Google Scholar
• Fu, Frank Q., Willy Bolander, and Eli Jones. 2009. “Managing the Drivers of Organizational Commitment and Salesperson Effort: An Application of Meyer and Allen's Three-Component Model.” Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice 17 (4):335–50. doi: 10.2753/MTP1069-6679170403.
   Google Scholar
• Gilson, Todd A., Graig M. Chow, and Deborah L. Feltz. 2012. “Self‐Efficacy and Athletic Squat Performance: Positive or Negative Influences at the Within‐and Between‐Levels of Analysis.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 42 (6):1467–85. doi: 10.1111/j.1559-1816.2012.00908.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guidice, Rebecca M., and Neal P. Mero. 2012. “Hedging Their Bets: A Longitudinal Study of the Trade-Offs between Task and Contextual Performance in a Sales Organization.” Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management 32 (4):451–71. doi: 10.2753/PSS0885-3134320404.
   Google Scholar
• Guo, Yi, Henrietta L. Logan, Deborah H. Glueck, and Keith E. Muller. 2013. “Selecting a Sample Size for Studies with Repeated Measures.” BMC Medical Research Methodology 13:100. doi: 10.1186/1471-2288-13-100.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gupta, Nina, Daniel C. Ganster, and Sven Kepes. 2013. “Assessing the Validity of Sales Self-Efficacy: A Cautionary Tale.” The Journal of Applied Psychology 98 (4):690–700. doi: 10.1037/a0032232.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamaker, Ellen L., Rebecca M. Kuiper, and Raoul P. P. P. Grasman. 2015. “A Critique of the Cross-Lagged Panel Model.” Psychological Methods 20 (1):102–16. doi: 10.1037/a0038889.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hertzog, Christopher, Ulman Lindenberger, Paolo Ghisletta, and Timo von Oertzen. 2006. “On the Power of Multivariate Latent Growth Curve Models to Detect Correlated Change.” Psychological Methods 11 (3):244. doi: 10.1037/1082-989X.11.3.244.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoffman, L. 2015. Longitudinal Analysis: Modeling Within-Person Fluctuation and Change. New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Hoffman, Lesa, and Robert S. Stawski. 2009. “Persons as Contexts: Evaluating Between-Person and Within-Person Effects in Longitudinal Analysis.” Research in Human Development 6 (2–3):97–120. doi: 10.1080/15427600902911189.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hofmann, David A. 1997. “An Overview of the Logic and Rationale of Hierarchical Linear Models.” Journal of Management 23 (6):723–44. doi: 10.1177/014920639702300602.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hulin, Charles L., Rebecca A. Henry, and Sharon L. Noon. 1990. “Adding a Dimension: Time as a Factor in the Generalizability of Predictive Relationships.” Psychological Bulletin 107 (3):328–40. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.107.3.328.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jak, Suzanne, and Terrence D. Jorgensen. 2017. “Relating Measurement Invariance, Cross-Level Invariance, and Multilevel Reliability.” Frontiers in Psychology 8 (1):9.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jaramillo, Fernando and Douglas B. Grisaffe. 2009. “Does Customer Orientation Impact Objective Sales Performance? Insights from a Longitudinal Model in Direct Selling.” Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management 29 (2):167–178.
   Google Scholar
• Johnson, Jeff S., Scott B. Friend, and Bradley J. Horn. 2014. “Levels of Analysis and Sources of Data in Sales Research: A Multilevel-Multisource Review.” Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management 34 (1):70–86. doi: 10.1080/08853134.2013.870185.
   Google Scholar
• Jung, Tony, and K. A. S. Wickrama. 2008. “An Introduction to Latent Class Growth Analysis and Growth Mixture Modeling.” Social and Personality Psychology Compass 2 (1):302–17. doi: 10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00054.x.
   Google Scholar
• Katsikeas, Constantine S., Seigyoung Auh, Stavroula Spyropoulou, and Bulent Menguc. 2018. “Unpacking the Relationship between Sales Control and Salesperson Performance: A Regulatory Fit Perspective.” Journal of Marketing 82 (3):45–69. doi: 10.1509/jm.16.0346.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kievit, Rogier A., Andreas M. Brandmaier, Gabriel Ziegler, Anne-Laura van Harmelen, Susanne M. M. de Mooij, Michael Moutoussis, Ian M. Goodyer, Ed Bullmore, Peter B. Jones, Peter Fonagy, et al. 2018. “Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Using Latent Change Score Models: A Tutorial and Applications.” Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience 33:99–117. doi: 10.1016/j.dcn.2017.11.007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kishore, Sunil, Raghunath Singh Rao, Om Narasimhan, and George John. 2013. “Bonuses versus Commissions: A Field Study.” Journal of Marketing Research 50 (3):317–33. doi: 10.1509/jmr.11.0485.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koehl, Maryse, Juliet F. Poujol, and John F. Tanner Jr. 2016. “The Impact of Sales Contests on Customer Listening: An Empirical Study in a Telesales Context.” Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management 36 (3):281–93. doi: 10.1080/08853134.2016.1186556.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krishnan, Balaji C., Richard G. Netemeyer, and James S. Boles. 2002. “Self-Efficacy, Competitiveness, and Effort as Antecedents of Salesperson Performance.” Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management 22 (4):285–95.
   Google Scholar
• Kumar, V., Sarang Sunder, and Robert P. Leone. 2014. “Measuring and Managing a Salesperson's Future Value to the Firm.” Journal of Marketing Research 51 (5):591–608. doi: 10.1509/jmr.13.0198.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lanza, Stephanie T., and Brittany R. Cooper. 2016. “Latent Class Analysis for Developmental Research.” Child Development Perspectives 10 (1):59–64. doi: 10.1111/cdep.12163.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, Jie, Gong Sun, and Zhiming Cheng. 2017. “The Influence of Political Skill on Salespersons’ Work Outcomes: A Resource Perspective.” Journal of Business Ethics 141 (3):551–62. doi: 10.1007/s10551-015-2696-z.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lim, Noah, and Hua Chen. 2014. “When Do Group Incentives for Salespeople Work?” Journal of Marketing Research 51 (3):320–34. doi: 10.1509/jmr.13.0322.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Little, Todd D. 2013. Longitudinal Structural Equation Modeling. New York: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Little, Todd D., Jürgen Baumert, and Kai Uwe Schnabel. 2000. Modeling Longitudinal and Multilevel Data. Mahwah, NJ: Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Locascio, Joseph J., and Alireza Atri. 2011. “An Overview of Longitudinal Data Analysis Methods for Neurological Research.” Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders Extra 1 (1):330–57. doi: 10.1159/000330228.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lu, Naiji, Yu Han, Tian Chen, Douglas D. Gunzler, Yinglin Xia, Julia Lin, and Xin M. Tu. 2013. “Power Analysis for Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Study Designs.” Shanghai Archives of Psychiatry 25 (4):259–62. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1002-0829.2013.04.009.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• MacCallum, Robert C., Cheongtag Kim, William B. Malarkey, and Janice K. Kiecolt-Glaser. 1997. “Studying Multivariate Change Using Multilevel Models and Latent Curve Models.” Multivariate Behavioral Research 32 (3):215–53. doi: 10.1207/s15327906mbr3203_1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahler, Alissa, Adam Fine, Paul J. Frick, Laurence Steinberg, and Elizabeth Cauffman. 2018. “Expecting the Unexpected? Expectations for Future Success among Adolescent First‐Time Offenders.” Child Development 89 (6):535–51.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McArdle, John J. 2009. “Latent Variable Modeling of Differences and Changes with Longitudinal Data.” Annual Review of Psychology 60:577–605. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163612.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McArdle, John J., and John R. Nesselroade. 2014. Longitudinal Data Analysis Using Structural Equation Models. Washington DC: American Psychological Association.
   Google Scholar
• Minbashian, Amirali, and Daniella Luppino. 2014. “Short-Term and Long-Term Within-Person Variability in Performance: An Integrative Model.” The Journal of Applied Psychology 99 (5):898–914. doi: 10.1037/a0037402.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miraglia, Mariella, Guido Alessandri, and Laura Borgogni. 2015. “Trajectory Classes of Job Performance: The Role of Self-Efficacy and Organizational Tenure.” Career Development International 20 (4):424–42. doi: 10.1108/CDI-03-2015-0032.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Molenaar, Peter C. M. 2004. “A Manifesto on Psychology as Idiographic Science: Bringing the Person Back into Scientific Psychology, This Time Forever.” Measurement 2 (4):201–18. doi: 10.1207/s15366359mea0204_1.
   Google Scholar
• Morgeson, Frederick P., and David A. Hofmann. 1999. “The Structure and Function of Collective Constructs: Implications for Multilevel Research and Theory Development.” Academy of Management Review 24 (2):249–65. doi: 10.2307/259081.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mulki, Jay P., Felicia G. Lassk, and Fernando Jaramillo. 2008. “The Effect of Self-Efficacy on Salesperson Work Overload and Pay Satisfaction.” Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management 28 (3):285–97. doi: 10.2753/PSS0885-3134280305.
   Google Scholar
• Muthén, Linda K., and Bengt O. Muthén. 2002. “How to Use a Monte Carlo Study to Decide on Sample Size and Determine Power.” Structural Equation Modeling 9 (4):599–620. doi: 10.1207/S15328007SEM0904_8.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newsom, J. T. 2015. Longitudinal Structural Equation Modeling: A Comprehensive Introduction. New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Panagopoulos, Nikolaos G., Adam A. Rapp, and Jessica L. Ogilvie. 2017. “Salesperson Solution Involvement and Sales Performance: The Contingent Role of Supplier Firm and Customer–Supplier Relationship Characteristics.” Journal of Marketing 81 (4):144–64. doi: 10.1509/jm.15.0342.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pangallo, Antonio, Lara Zibarras, Rachel Lewis, and Paul Flaxman. 2015. “Resilience through the Lens of Interactionism: A Systematic Review.” Psychological Assessment 27 (1):1–20. doi: 10.1037/pas0000024.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patil, Ashutosh, and Niladri Syam. 2018. “How Do Specialized Personal Incentives Enhance Sales Performance? The Benefits of Steady Sales Growth.” Journal of Marketing 82 (1):57–73. doi: 10.1509/jm.15.0523.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rees, Clare S., Lauren J., Breen, Lynette Cusack, and Desley Hegney. 2015. “Understanding Individual Resilience in the Workplace: The International Collaboration of Workforce Resilience Model.” Frontiers in Psychology 6:1–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richard, Erin M., James M. Diefendorff, and James H. Martin. 2006. “Revisiting the Within-Person Self-Efficacy and Performance Relation.” Human Performance 19 (1):67–87. doi: 10.1207/s15327043hup1901_4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rousselet, Evelyne, Bérangère Brial, Romain Cadario, and Amina Béji-Bécheur. 2018. “Moral Intensity, Issue Characteristics, and Ethical Issue Recognition in Sales Situations.” Journal of Business Ethics:1–17. doi:10.1007/s10551-018-4020-1
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schmidt, Aaron M., and Richard P. DeShon. 2010. “The Moderating Effects of Performance Ambiguity on the Relationship between Self-Efficacy and Performance.” Journal of Applied Psychology 95 (3):572–81. doi: 10.1037/a0018289.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schrock, Wyatt A., Yanhui Zhao, Douglas E. Hughes, and Keith A. Richards. 2016. “JPSSM since the Beginning: Intellectual Cornerstones, Knowledge Structure, and Thematic Developments.” Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management 36 (4):321–43. doi: 10.1080/08853134.2016.1253019.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seo, Myeong-Gu, and Remus Ilies. 2009. “The Role of Self-Efficacy, Goal, and Affect in Dynamic Motivational Self-Regulation.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 109 (2):120–33. doi: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2009.03.001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shi, Huanhuan, Shrihari Sridhar, Rajdeep Grewal, and Gary Lilien. 2017. “Sales Representative Departures and Customer Reassignment Strategies in Business-to-Business Markets.” Journal of Marketing 81 (2):25–44. doi: 10.1509/jm.15.0358.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh, Ramendra, and Gopal Das. 2013. “The Impact of Job Satisfaction, Adaptive Selling Behaviors and Customer Orientation on Salesperson's Performance: Exploring the Moderating Role of Selling Experience.” Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing 28 (7):554–64. doi: 10.1108/JBIM-04-2011-0121.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh, Sunil, Detelina, Marinova, Jagdip Singh, and Kenneth R. Evans. 2018. “Customer Query Handling in Sales Interactions.” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 46 (5):1–20.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sliwinski, Martin, Lesa Hoffman, and Scott M. Hofer. 2010. “Evaluating Convergence of Within-Person Change and Between-Person Age Differences in Age-Heterogeneous Longitudinal Studies.” Research in Human Development 7 (1):45–60. doi: 10.1080/15427600903578169.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smithson, Michael, and Edgar C. Merkle. 2013. Generalized Linear Models for Categorical and Continuous Limited Dependent Variables. Boca Raton, FL: Chapman and Hall/CRC.
   Google Scholar
• Stajkovic, Alexander D., and Fred Luthans. 1998. “Self-Efficacy and Work-Related Performance: A Meta-Analysis.” Psychological Bulletin 124 (2):240–61. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.124.2.240.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steenkamp, Jan-Benedict E. M., and Hans Baumgartner. 1998. “Assessing Measurement Invariance in Cross-National Consumer Research.” Journal of Consumer Research 25 (1):78–90. doi: 10.1086/209528.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stewart, Greg L., and Amit K. Nandkeolyar. 2006. “Adaptation and Intraindividual Variation in Sales Outcomes: Exploring the Interactive Effects of Personality and Environmental Opportunity.” Personnel Psychology 59 (2):307–32. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-6570.2006.00016.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tate, Richard. 2004. “Interpreting Hierarchical Linear and Hierarchical Generalized Linear Models with Slopes as Outcomes.” The Journal of Experimental Education 73 (1):71–95. doi: 10.3200/JEXE.71.1.71.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thoresen, Carl J., Jill C. Bradley, Paul D. Bliese, and Joseph D. Thoresen. 2004. “The Big Five Personality Traits and Individual Job Performance Growth Trajectories in Maintenance and Transitional Job Stages.” Journal of Applied Psychology 89 (5):835–53. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.89.5.835.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Twisk, Jos W. R. 2013. Applied Longitudinal Data Analysis for Epidemiology: A Practical Guide. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Usami, S., T. Hayes, and J. J. McArdle. 2016. “Inferring Longitudinal Relationships between Variables: Model Selection between the Latent Change Score and Autoregressive Cross-Lagged Factor Models.” Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal 23 (3):331–42. doi: 10.1080/10705511.2015.1066680.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vancouver, Jeffrey B., and Laura N. Kendall. 2006. “When Self-Efficacy Negatively Relates to Motivation and Performance in a Learning Context.” Journal of Applied Psychology 91 (5):1146–53. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.91.5.1146.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vancouver, Jeffrey B., Charles M. Thompson, and Amy A. Williams. 2001. “The Changing Signs in the Relationships among Self-Efficacy, Personal Goals, and Performance.” Journal of Applied Psychology 86 (4):605–20. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.86.4.605.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vasey, Michael W., and Julian F. Thayer. 1987. “The Continuing Problem of False Positives in Repeated-Measures ANOVA in Psychophysiology: A Multivariate Solution.” Psychophysiology 24 (4):479–86. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.1987.tb00324.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Viswanathan, Madhu, Xiaolin Li, George John, and Om Narasimhan. 2018. “Is Cash King for Sales Compensation Plans? Evidence from a Large-Scale Field Intervention.” Journal of Marketing Research 55 (3):368–81. doi: 10.1509/jmr.14.0290.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Voelkle, Manuel C., Annette Brose, Florian Schmiedek, and Ulman Lindenberger. 2014. “Toward a Unified Framework for the Study of Between-Person and Within-Person Structures: Building a Bridge between Two Research Paradigms.” Multivariate Behavioral Research 49 (3):193–213. doi: 10.1080/00273171.2014.889593.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Widaman, Keith F., Emilio Ferrer, and Rand D. Conger. 2010. “Factorial Invariance within Longitudinal Structural Equation Models: Measuring the Same Construct across Time.” Child Development Perspectives 4 (1):10–8. doi: 10.1111/j.1750-8606.2009.00110.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yeo, Gillian B., and Andrew Neal. 2006. “An Examination of the Dynamic Relationship between Self-Efficacy and Performance across Levels of Analysis and Levels of Specificity.” Journal of Applied Psychology 91 (5):1088–101. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.91.5.1088.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar