Fruit and vegetable intake as a moderator of the association between depressive symptoms and cigarette smoking

References

• Mokdad AH, Marks JS, Stroup DF, Gerberding JL. Actual causes of death in the United States, 2000. JAMA. 2004;291:1238–1245.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGinnis JM, Foege WH. Actual causes of death in the United States. JAMA. 1993;270:2207–2212.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Danaei G, Ding EL, Mozaffarian D, et al. The preventable causes of death in the United States: comparative risk assessment of dietary, lifestyle, and metabolic risk factors. PLoS Med. 2009;6:e1000058.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lasser K, Boyd JW, Woolhandler S, Himmelstein DU, McCormick D, Bor DH. Smoking and mental illness: a population-based prevalence study. JAMA. 2000;284:2606–2610.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glassman AH, Helzer JE, Covey LS, et al. Smoking, smoking cessation, and major depression. JAMA. 1990;264:1546–1549.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pratt LA, Brody DJ. Depression and smoking in the U.S. household population aged 20 and over, 2005–2008. NCHS Data Brief. 2010;(34):1–8.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kessler RC, Berglund P, Demler O, Jin R, Merikangas KR, Walters EE. Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005;62:593–602.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berlin I, Covey LS, Glassman AH. Smoking and depression: a co-morbidity. J Dual Diagn. 2009;5:149–158.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hitsman B, Papandonatos GD, McChargue DE, et al. Past major depression and smoking cessation outcome: a systematic review and meta-analysis update. Addiction. 2013;108:294–306.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• US Department of Health and Human Services. Preventing Tobacco Use Among Youth and Young Adults: A Report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health; 2012.
   Google Scholar
• US Department of Health and Human Services. Reducing Tobacco Use: A Report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health; 2000.
   Google Scholar
• Hughes JR, Stead LF, Hartmann-Boyce J, Cahill K, Lancaster T. Antidepressants for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014; (1): CD000031.
   Google Scholar
• Stead LF, Perera R, Bullen C, et al. Nicotine replacement therapy for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012; (11): CD000146.
   Google Scholar
• Gierisch JM, Bastian LA, Calhoun PS, McDuffie JR, Williams JW Jr. Smoking cessation interventions for patients with depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Gen Intern Med. 2012;27:351–360.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guenther PM, Reedy J, Krebs-Smith SM, Reeve BB. Evaluation of the Healthy Eating Index—2005. J Am Diet Assoc. 2008;108:1854–1864.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Birkett NJ. Intake of fruits and vegetables in smokers. Public Health Nutr. 1999;2:217–222.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morabia A, Wynder E. Dietary habits of smokers, people who never smoked, and exsmokers. Am J Clin Nutr. 1990;52:933–937.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nuttens MC, Romon M, Ruidavets JB, et al. Relationship between smoking and diet: the MONICA-France project. J Intern Med. 1992;231:349–356.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palaniappan U, Starkey LJ, O'Loughlin J, Gray-Donald K. Fruit and vegetable consumption is lower and saturated fat intake is higher among canadians reporting smoking. J Nutr. 2001;131:1952–1958.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Subar AF, Harlan LC, Mattson ME. Food and nutrient intake differences between smokers and non-smokers in the US. Am J Public Health. 1990;80:1323–1329.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Serdula MK, Byers T, Mokdad AH, Simoes E, Mendlein JM, Coates RJ. The association between fruit and vegetable intake and chronic disease risk factors. Epidemiology. 1996;7:161–165.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zondervan KT, Ocke MC, Smit HA, Seidell JC. Do dietary and supplementary intakes of antioxidants differ with smoking status? Int J Epidemiol. 1996;25:70–79.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abood D, Conway T. Smoking status, body composition, exercise, and diet among navy men. Health Values. 1994;18:51–62.
   Google Scholar
• Haibach JP, Homish GG, Giovino GA. A longitudinal evaluation of fruit and vegetable consumption and cigarette smoking. Nicotine Tob Res. 2013;15:355–363.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacka F, Mykletun A, Berk M, Bjelland I, Tell G. The association between habitual diet quality and the common mental disorders in community-dwelling adults: the Hordaland Health study. Psychosom Med. 2011;73:483–490.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akbaraly TN, Brunner EJ, Ferrie JE, Marmot MG, Kivimaki M, Singh-Manoux A. Dietary pattern and depressive symptoms in middle age. Br J Psychiatry. 2009;195:408–413.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacka F, Pasco J, Mykletun A, et al. Association of Western and traditional diets with depression and anxiety in women. Am J Psychiatry. 2010;167:305–311.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McMartin S, Jacka F, Colman I. The association between fruit and vegetable consumption and mental health disorders: evidence from five waves of a national survey of Canadians. Prev Med. 2013;56:225–230.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanchez-Villegas A, Delgado-Rodriguez M, Alonso A, et al. Association of the Mediterranean dietary pattern with the incidence of depression: the Seguimiento Universidad de Navarra (SUN) Cohort. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2009;66:1090–1098.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merrill RM, Taylor P, Aldana SG. Coronary Health Improvement Project (CHIP) is associated with improved nutrient intake and decreased depression. Nutrition. 2008;24:314–321.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer JH, Ginovart N, Boovariwala A, et al. Elevated monoamine oxidase a levels in the brain: an explanation for the monoamine imbalance of major depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2006;63:1209–1216.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gomez-Pinilla F, Nguyen TT. Natural mood foods: the actions of polyphenols against psychiatric and cognitive disorders. Nutr Neurosci. 2012;15:127–133.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dixon Clarke SE, Ramsay RR. Dietary inhibitors of monoamine oxidase A. J Neural Transm. 2011;118:1031–1041.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Amsterdam J, Talhout R, Vleeming W, Opperhuizen A. Contribution of monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibition to tobacco and alcohol addiction. Life Sci. 2006;79:1969–1973.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Center for Human Resource Research. NLSY79 Child & Young Adult Data Users Guide. Columbus, OH: The Ohio State University; 2009.
   Google Scholar
• Eaton DK, Olsen EOM, Brener ND, et al. A comparison of fruit and vegetable intake estimates from three survey question sets to estimates from 24-hour dietary recall interviews. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2013;113:1165–1174.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. State-specific trends in fruit and vegetable consumption among adults—United States, 2000–2009. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2010;59:1125–1130.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Field A, Colditz G, Fox M, et al. Comparison of 4 questionnaires for assessment of fruit and vegetable intake. Am J Public Health. 1998;88:1216–1218.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levine SZ. Evaluating the seven-item Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale short-form: a longitudinal US community study. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2013; 9:1519–1526.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC Handbooks of Cancer Prevention, Tobacco Control, Vol. 12: Methods for Evaluating Tobacco Control Policies. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO Press; 2008.
   Google Scholar
• Caraballo RS, Giovino GA, Pechacek TF. Self-reported cigarette smoking vs. serum cotinine among U.S. adolescents. Nicotine Tob Res. 2004;6:19–25.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caraballo RS, Giovino GA, Pechacek TF, Mowery PD. Factors associated with discrepancies between self-reports on cigarette smoking and measured serum cotinine levels among persons aged 17 years or older: Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988–1994. Am J Epidemiol. 2001;153:807–814.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vartiainen E, Seppälä T, Lillsunde P, Puska P. Validation of self reported smoking by serum cotinine measurement in a community-based study. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2002;56:167–170.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Prevalence of regular physical activity among adults—United States, 2001 and 2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2007;56:1209–1212.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hayes AF. Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: a regression-based approach. http://www.afhayes.com/introduction-to-mediation-moderation-and-conditional-process-analysis.html. Published 2014. Accessed March 4, 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Hayes AF, Matthes J. Computational procedures for probing interactions in OLS and logistic regression: SPSS and SAS implementations. Behav Res Methods. 2009;41:924–936.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayes AF. Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-Based Approach. New York, NY: The Guilford Press; 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Spiller SA, Fitzsimons GJ, Lynch JG Jr, McClelland GH. Spotlights, floodlights, and the magic number zero: simple effects tests in moderated regression. J Mark Res. 2013;50:277–288.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jamal M, Van der Does AW, Cuijpers P, Penninx BW. Association of smoking and nicotine dependence with severity and course of symptoms in patients with depressive or anxiety disorder. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2012;126:138–146.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu M-C, Davies M, Kandel DB. Epidemiology and correlates of daily smoking and nicotine dependence among young adults in the United States. Am J Public Health. 2006;96:299–308.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woodward M, Bolton-Smith C, Tunstall-Pedoe H. Deficient health knowledge, diet, and other lifestyles in smokers: is a multifactorial approach required? Prev Med. 1994;23:354–361.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldbourt U, Medalie JH. Characteristics of smokers, nonsmokers and ex-smokers among 10,000 adult males in Israel. I. Distribution of selected sociodemographic and behavioral variables and the prevalence of disease. Isr J Med Sci. 1975;11:1079–1101.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lorant V, Deliège D, Eaton W, Robert A, Philippot P, Ansseau M. Socioeconomic inequalities in depression: a meta-analysis. Am J Epidemiol. 2003;157:98–112.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balfour DJK. The neurobiology of tobacco dependence: a preclinical perspective on the role of the dopamine projections to the nucleus. Nicotine Tob Res. 2004;6:899–912.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dailly E, Chenu F, Renard CE, Bourin M. Dopamine, depression and antidepressants. Fundam Clin Pharmacol. 2004;18:601–607.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olausson P, Engel JA, Söderpalm B. Involvement of serotonin in nicotine dependence: processes relevant to positive and negative regulation of drug intake. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2002;71:757–771.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Owens MJ, Nemeroff CB. Role of serotonin in the pathophysiology of depression: focus on the serotonin transporter. Clin Chem. 1994;40:288–295.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boureau YL, Dayan P. Opponency revisited: competition and cooperation between dopamine and serotonin. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2010;36:74–97.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lerman C, Audrain J, Orleans CT, et al. Investigation of mechanisms linking depressed mood to nicotine dependence. Addict Behav. 1996;21:9–19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lerman C, Caporaso N, Main D, et al. Depression and self-medication with nicotine: the modifying influence of the dopamine D4 receptor gene. Health Psychol. 1998;17:56–62.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Biasi M, Dani JA. Reward, addiction, withdrawal to nicotine. Annu Rev Neurosci. 2010;34:105–130.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell UC, Carroll ME. Reduction of drug self-administration by an alternative non-drug reinforcer in rhesus monkeys: magnitude and temporal effects. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2000;147:418–425.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• West R. Glucose for smoking cessation: does it have a role? CNS Drugs. 2001;15:261–265.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grunberg NE. The effects of nicotine and cigarette smoking on food consumption and taste preferences. Addict Behav. 1982;7:317–331.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Helmers KF, Young SN. The effect of sucrose on acute tobacco withdrawal in women. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1998;139:217–221.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bolton-Smith C, Woodward M, Brown CA, Tunstall-Pedoe H. Nutrient intake by duration of ex-smoking in the Scottish Heart Health Study. Br J Nutr. 1993;69:315–332.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christensen L. The effect of food intake on mood. Clin Nutr. 2001;20(Suppl 1):161–166.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deshpande C, Dhir A, Kulkarni SK. Antagonistic activity of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) on dopaminergic modulation: apomorphine-induced stereotypic behavior in mice. Pharmacology. 2006;77:38–45.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ressler KJ, Nemeroff CB. Role of serotonergic and noradrenergic systems in the pathophysiology of depression and anxiety disorders. Depress Anxiety J. 2000;12(Suppl 1):2–19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowen DJ, Spring B, Fox E. Tryptophan and high-carbohydrate diets as adjuncts to smoking cessation therapy. J Behav Med. 1991;14:97–110.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berlin I, Vorspan F, Warot D, Manéglier B, Spreux-Varoquaux O. Effect of glucose on tobacco craving. Is it mediated by tryptophan and serotonin? Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2005;178:27–34.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cook R, Benton D. The relationship between diet and mental health. Pers Individ Dif. 1993;14:397–403.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balfour DJ, Fagerström KO. Pharmacology of nicotine and its therapeutic use in smoking cessation and neurodegenerative disorders. Pharmacol Ther. 1996;72:51–81.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar