People Are Not Points in Space: Network Models of Beliefs and Discussions

REFERENCES

• Academic Freedom Alliance, Heterodox Academy & Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression. 2024. “An Open Letter to College and University Trustees and Regents: It’s Time to Adopt Institutional Neutrality”, https://institutionalneutrality.org/.
   Google Scholar
• Achen, Christopher H. & Bartels, Larry M. 2017. Democracy for Realists: Why Elections Do Not Produce Responsive Government (Princeton University Press).
   Google Scholar
• Adorno, Theodor, Frenkel-Brenswik, Else, Levinson, Daniel J., & Sanford, R. Nevitt. [1950] 2019. The Authoritarian Personality. Verso Books.
   Google Scholar
• Allen, Danielle. 2015. “Reconceiving Public Spheres: The Flow Dynamics Model,” in Danielle Allen & Jennifer S. Light, From Voice to Influence: Understanding Citizenship in a Digital Age, University of Chicago Press, 178-207.
   Google Scholar
• Axelrod, Robert. 1976. Structure of Decision: The Cognitive Maps of Political Elites. Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Axelrod, Robert, Daymude, Joshua J. & Forres, Stephanie. 2021 “Preventing Extreme Polarization of Political Attitudes.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118 (5): e2102139118.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bächtiger, André & Parkinson, John, 2019. Mapping and Measuring Deliberation: Towards a New Deliberative Quality (Oxford, OUP Oxford).
   Google Scholar
• Baldassarri, Delia & Goldberg, Amir. 2014. “Neither Ideologues Nor Agnostics: Alternative Voters’ Belief System in an Age of Partisan Politics.” American Journal of Sociology 120 (1): 45-95.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ben-Porath, Sigal R. 2023. Cancel Wars How Universities Can Foster Free Speech, Promote Inclusion, and Renew Democracy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bollen, Kenneth A. 2002. “Latent Variables in Psychology and the Social Sciences.” Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1): 605-634.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bolsen, Toby and Palm, Rita. 2019. Motivated reasoning and political decision making. In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.923.
   Google Scholar
• Boutyline, Andrei & Vaisey, Stephen. 2017. “Belief Network Analysis: A Relational Approach to Understanding the Structure of Attitudes.” American Journal of Sociology 122 (5): 1371-1447.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brandt, Mark J. & Morgan, G. Scott. 2022. “Between-person methods provide limited insight about within-person belief systems.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brandt, Mark J., Sibley, Chris G. & Osborne, Danny. 2019. “What is Central to Political Belief System Networks?” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 45 (9): 1352-1364.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Converse, Philip E. [1964] 2006 “The nature of belief systems in mass publics.” Critical Review 18 (1-3).
   Google Scholar
• Coppock, Alexander & Green, Donald P. 2022. “Do Belief Systems Exhibit Dynamic Constraint?” The Journal of Politics 84: 725-738.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dalege, Jonas, Denny Borsboom, Frenk Van Harreveld, Helma Van den Berg, Mark Conner, and Han LJ Van der Maas. 2016 “Toward a Formalized Account of Attitudes: The Causal Attitude Network (CAN) model.” Psychological Review 123(1).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dalege, Jonas, Galesic, Mirta & Olsson, Henrik. 2023. “Networks of Beliefs: An Integrative Theory of Individual- and Social-level Belief Dynamics.” OSF Preprints. April 12. doi:10.31219/osf.io/368jz.
   Google Scholar
• Dickson, Eric. S., Hafer, Catherine & Landa, Dimitri. 2008. “Cognition and Strategy: A Deliberation Experiment.” The Journal of Politics 70 (4): 974-989.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Downs, Anthony. 1957. An Economic Theory of Democracy. New York: Harper & Row)
   Google Scholar
• Emerson, Ralph Waldo [1841] 2009. “Self-Reliance.” In The Essential Writings of Ralph Waldo Emerson. New York: Random House).
   Google Scholar
• Emerson, Ralph Waldo [1844] 2009. “Experience.” In The Essential Writings of Ralph Waldo Emerson. New York: Random House).
   Google Scholar
• Fishkin, James, Siu, Alice, Diamond, Larry & Bradburn, Norman. 2021 “Is Deliberation An Antidote to Extreme Partisan Polarization? Reflections on “America in One Room/” American Political Science Review 115 (4): 464-1481.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fishman Nic & Davis, Nicholas T. 2022 “Change We Can Believe In: Structural and Content Dynamics Within Belief Networks.” American Journal of Political Science 66 (3): 648-663.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freeden, Michael (2013) “The Morphological Analysis of Ideology.” In The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies. Oxford University Press: 115-137.
   Google Scholar
• Gallina, Marta. 2023 “Solving the (False) Dilemma: An Ecological Approach to the Study of Opinion Constraint.” Political Studies (2023): 00323217221147774.
   Google Scholar
• Golino, Hudson, Dingjing Shi, Alexander P. Christensen, Luis Eduardo Garrido, Maria Dolores Nieto, Ritu Sadana, Jotheeswaran Amuthavalli Thiyagarajan, and Agustin Martinez-Molina. 2020 “Investigating the Performance of Exploratory Graph Analysis and Traditional Techniques to Identify the Number of Latent Factors: A Simulation and Tutorial.” Psychological Methods 25, 3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gordon, Peter E. 2017. “The Authoritarian Personality Revisited: Reading Adorno in the Age of Trump.” Boundary 2.
   Google Scholar
• Graham, Jesse, Brian A. Nosek, Jonathan Haidt, Ravi Iyer, Spassena Koleva, and Peter H. Ditto. 2011. “Mapping the Moral Domain.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol. 101(2)
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green, Jonathan. 2020. Belief Systems in American Politics: Three Papers on The Study of Ideas, Dissertation, Ohio State University.
   Google Scholar
• Habermas, Jürgen [1973] 1975. Legitimation Crisis trans. Thomas McCarthy. Boston: Beacon Press.
   Google Scholar
• Haidt, Jonathan 2012. The Righteous Mind: Why Good People Are Divided by Politics and Religion. New York: Vintage.
   Google Scholar
• Hare, Christopher & Poole, Keith T. 2014. “The Polarization of Contemporary American Politics.” Polity 46 (3): 411-429.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hegel, G.W.F. [1837] 1927. Vorlesungen über die Philosophie der Geschichte. Leipzig: Reclam, http://philotextes.info/spip/IMG/pdf/hegel_philosophie_der_geschichte.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Herder, Johann Gottfried. [1775] 2015. “This, Too, a Philosophy of History” In Herder, On World History: An Anthology, ed. Hans Adler & Ernest A. Menze. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2015).
   Google Scholar
• Hochschild, Arlie Russell. 2016. Strangers in Their Own Land: Anger and Mourning on the American Right. New Press.
   Google Scholar
• Homer-Dixon, Thomas, Jonathan Leader Maynard, Matto Mildenberger, Manjana Milkoreit, Steven J. Mock, Stephen Quilley, Tobias Schröder, and Paul Thagard. 2013. “A Complex Systems Approach to the Study of Ideology: Cognitive-Affective Structures and the Dynamics of Belief Systems.” Journal of Social and Political Psychology, 1.1: 337-363.
   Google Scholar
• Hudson F. Golino & Sacha Epskamp. “Exploratory Graph Analysis: A New Approach for Estimating the Number of Dimensions in Psychological Research” PloS one (2017) 12/6 e0174035;
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ingram, Mrill, Ingram, Helen & Lejano, Raul. 2019. “Environmental Action in the Anthropocene: The power of Narrative-Networks.” 2019 Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning. 21(5): 492-503.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, James. 2020. “Models-As-Fables: An Alternative to the Standard Rationale for Using Formal Models in Political Science.” Perspectives on Politics. 1-16.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kinder, Donald R. & Kalmoe, Nathan P. 2017. Neither Liberal Nor Conservative: Ideological Innocence in the American Public. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Levine, Caroline. 2015 Forms: Whole, Rhythm, Hierarchy, Network. Princeton University Press
   Google Scholar
• Levine, Peter, Brendan Eagan, and David Williamson Shaffer. 2021. “Deliberation as an Epistemic Network: A Method for Analyzing Discussion.” In International Conference on Quantitative Ethnography, pp. 17-32. Cham: Springer International Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Levine, Peter. 2022. “Mapping Ideologies as Networks of Ideas.” Journal of Political Ideologies 1-28.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maynard, Jonathan Leader 2013. “A Map of the Field of Ideological Analysis.” Journal of Political Ideologies 18(3): 299-327.
   Google Scholar
• Mercier, Hugo & Sperber, Dan. 2017. The Enigma of Reason. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Milkoreit, Manjana. 2012 “Why the Mind Matters: A Cognitive Research Agenda for World Politics.” Waterloo Institute for Complexity & Innovation Occasional Paper #3.
   Google Scholar
• Mill, John Stuart. [1859] 2011. On Liberty. London: Walter Scott Publishing Co.
   Google Scholar
• Mutz, Diana C. 2008. “Is Deliberative Democracy a Falsifiable Theory?” Annual Review of Political Science 11: 521-538.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neblo, Michael A., Kevin M. Esterling, Ryan P. Kennedy, David MJ Lazer, and Anand E. Sokhey. 2010. “Who Wants to Deliberate—and Why?” American Political Science Review 104 (3): 566-583.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nietzsche, Friedrich. 1883-92. Also Sprach Zarathustra: Ein Buch für Alle und Keinen. https://www.gutenberg.org/files/7205/7205-h/7205-h.htm.
   Google Scholar
• Nietzsche, Friedrich. 1892. Zur Genealogie der Moral: Eine Streitschrift Leipzig: von C. G. Naumann), III:12.
   Google Scholar
• Perrin, Andrew J. & Lundberg, Christian. 2023. “People Deserve Safety On College Campuses. Ideas Don’t.” The Boston Globe, March 29.
   Google Scholar
• Perrin, Andrew J. & McFarland, Katherine. 2011. “Social Theory and Public Opinion.” Annual Review of Sociology 37.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perry, Chloe & DeDeo, Simon. 2021. “The Cognitive Science of Extremist Ideologies Online.” arXiv preprint arXiv:2110.00626 (2021).
   Google Scholar
• Rawls, John. 1999. The Law of Peoples: With “The Idea of Public Reason Revisited” Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Rosen, Michael. 2002. The Shadow of God: Kant, Hegel, and the Passage from Heaven to History. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Savolainen, Jukka, Casey, Patrick J., McBrayer, Justin P., & Schwerdtle, Patricia Nayna. 2023. “Positionality and Its Problems: Questioning the Value of Reflexivity Statements in Research.” Perspectives on Psychological Science (2023): 17456916221144988.
   Google Scholar
• Shaffer, David Williamson, Collier, Wesley & Ruis, Andrew R. 2016. “A Tutorial on Epistemic Network Analysis: Analyzing the Structure of Connections in Cognitive, Social, and Interaction Data.” Journal of Learning Analytics 3(3): 9-45.
   Google Scholar
• Shook, Natalie J., Fitzgerald, Holly N., Boggs, Shelby T., Ford, Cameron G., Hopkins, Patricia D. & Silva, Nicole M. 2020 “Sexism, Racism, and Nationalism: Factors Associated with the 2016 US Presidential Election Results.” Plos One 15 (3): e0229432.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shugars, Sarah. 2020. Reasoning Together: Network Methods for Political Talk and Normative Reasoning, Dissertation: Northeastern University.
   Google Scholar
• Sniderman, Paul M. 2017. The Democratic Faith: Essays on Democratic Citizenship. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Swidler, Ann. 2011. Talk of Love: How Culture Matters. Chicago: University of Chicago Press
   Google Scholar
• Thagard, Paul. 2012. “Mapping Minds Across Cultures.” in R. Sun ed. Grounding Social Sciences in Cognitive Sciences. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Thiele, Leslie Paul 2006. The Heart of Judgment: Practical Wisdom, Neuroscience, and Narrative. Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Turner-Zwinkels, Felicity M., Branden B. Johnson, Chris G. Sibley & Mark J. Brandt. 2021. “Conservatives’ Moral Foundations are More Densely Connected than Liberals’ Moral Foundations.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 47(2): 167-184.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williamson, Vanessa, Skocpol, Theda & Coggin, John. 2011. “The Tea Party and the Remaking of Republican Conservatism.” Perspectives on Politics 9(1); 25-43.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolcott, Harry F. 1991. “Propriospect and the Acquisition of Culture.” Anthropology & Education Quarterly 22(3).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zaller, John & Feldman, Stanley. 1992. “A Simple Theory of the Survey Response: Answering Questions Versus Revealing Preferences,” American Journal of Political Science: 579-616.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar