Carcinogenicity of inhaled nanoparticles

References

• Andersen, A., Berge, S.R., Engeland, A., and Norseth, T. 1996. Exposure to nickel compounds and smoking in relation to incidence of lung and nasal cancer among nickel refinery workers. Occup. Environ. Med. 53:708–713.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baan, R.A. 2007. Carcinogenic hazards from inhaled carbon black, titanium dioxide, and talc not containing asbestos or asbestiform fibers: Recent evaluations by an IARC Monographs working group. Inhal. Toxicol. 19(suppl. 1):213–228.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bellmann, B., Ernst, H., Kolling, A., and Pott, F. 2006. Histologische und bildanalytische Untersuchungen über die entzündliche und fibrotische Wirkung von Ultrafeinstäuben aus der 19-Stäube-Kanzerogenitätsstudie. Abschlussbericht für die Vereinigung der Metall-Berufsgenossenschaften, Düsseldorf. 15. März 2006.
   Google Scholar
• Boffetta, P., Soutar, A., Cherrie, J.W., Granath, F., Andersen, A., Anttila, A., Blettner, M., Gaborieau, V., Klug, S.J., Langard, S., Luce, D., Merletti, F., Miller, B., Mirabelli, D., Pukkala, E., Adami, H.O., and Weiderpass, E. 2004. Mortality among workers employed in the titanium dioxide production industry in Europe. Cancer Causes Control 15(7):697–706.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Büchte, S.F., Morfeld, P., Wellmann, J., Bolm-Audorff, U., McCunney, R.J., Piekarski, C., and International Carbon Black Association. 2006. Lung cancer mortality and carbon black exposure: A nested case-control study at a German carbon black production plant. J. Occup. Environ. Med. 48(12):1242–1252.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Californian Environmental Protection Agency. 1998. Findings of the Scientific Review Panel on THE REPORT ON DIESEL EXHAUST as adopted at the Panel’s April 22, 1998, Meeting. (Attachment A to Resolution 98-35 of State of California Air Resources Board, August 27, 1998.) http://www.calepa.ca.gov
   Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2008. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. National Vital Statitistics System. Deaths: Final Data for 2005, National Vital Statistics Reports Volume 56 Number 10, 2008; and other data tables available at http://www.cdc/gov/nchs/deaths.htm
   Google Scholar
• Cheng, Y.S., Yeh, H.C., Mauderly, J.L., and Mokler, B.V. 1984. Characterization of diesel exhaust in a chronic inhalation study. Am. Ind. Hyg. Ass. J. 45:547–555.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Churg, A. 1996. The uptake of mineral particles by pulmonary epithelial cells. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 154:1124–1140.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costantino, J.P., Redmond, C.K., and Bearden, A. 1995. Occupationally related cancer risk among coke oven workers: 30 Years of follow-up. J. Occup. Environ. Med. 37:597–604.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dai, J., Gilks, B., Price, K., and Churg, A. 1998. Mineral dusts directly induce epithelial and interstitial fibrogenic mediators and matrix components in the airway wall. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 158:1907–1913.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis, J.M.G., and Jones, A.D. 1988. Comparisons of the pathogenicity of long and short fibres of chrysotile asbestos in rats. Br. J. Exp. Pathol. 69: 717–737.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dawson, S.V., and Alexeeff, G.V. 2001. Multi-stage model estimates of lung cancer risk from exposure to diesel exhaust, based on a U.S. railroad worker cohort. Risk Anal. 21:1–18.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dell, L.D., Mundt, K.A., Luippold, R.S., Nunes, A.P., Cohen, L., Burch, M.T., Heidenreich, M.J., Bachand, A.M., and International Carbon Black Association. 2006. A cohort mortality study of employees in the U.S. carbon black industry. J. Occup. Environ. Med. 48(12):1219–1229.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Don Porto Carero, A., Hoet, P.H., Verschaeve, L., Schoeters, G., and Nemery, B. 2001. Genotoxic effects of carbon black particles, diesel exhaust particles, and urban air particulates and their extracts on a human alveolar epithelial cell line (A549) and a human monocytic cell line (THP-1). Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 37(2):155–163.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Driscoll, K.E. 1996. Role of inflammation in the development of rat lung tumors in response to chronic particle exposure. Inhal. Toxicol. 8(suppl.):139–153.
   Google Scholar
• Driscoll, K.E., Deyo, L.C., Carter, J.M., Howard, B.W., Hassenbein, D.G., and Bertram, T.A. 1997. Effects of particle exposure and particle-elicited inflammatory cells on mutation in rat alveolar epithelial cells. Carcinogenesis 18:423–430.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ernst, H., Kolling, A., Bellmann, B., Rittinghausen, S., Heinrich, U., and Pott, F. 2005. Pathogenetische und immunbiologische Untersuchungen zur Frage: Ist die Extrapolation der Staubkanzerogenität von der Ratte auf den Menschen gerechtfertigt? Teil II: Histologie. Abschlussbericht. Umweltforschungsplan des Bundesministeriums für Umwelt, Naturschutz und Reaktorsicherheit. November 2005. http://www.umweltdaten.de/publikationen/fpdf-l/3033.pdf
   Google Scholar
• European Communities. 2001. Commission Directive 2001/59/EC of 6 August 2001 adapting to technical progress for the 28th time Council Directive 67/548/EEC on the approximation of the laws, regulations and administrative provisions relating to the classification, packaging and labelling of dangerous substances. Official Journal of the European Communities. L225/1–333.
   Google Scholar
• Fryzek, J.P., Chadda, B., Marano, D., White, K., Schweitzer, S., McLaughlin, J.K., and Blot, W.J. 2003. A cohort mortality study among titanium dioxide manufacturing workers in the United States. J. Occup. Environ. Med. 45(4):400–409.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gardiner, K., Calvert, I.A., van Tongeren, M.J. , and Harrington, J.M. 1996. Occupational exposure to carbon black in its manufacture: Data from 1987 to 1992. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 40(1):65–77.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gardiner, K., van Tongeren, M., and Harrington, M. 2001. Respiratory health effects from exposure to carbon black: results of the phase 2 and 3 cross sectional studies in the European carbon black manufacturing industry. Occup. Environ. Med. 58(8):496–503.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Garshick, E., Laden, F., Hart, J.E., Rosner, B., Smith, Th.J., Dockery, D.W., and Speizer, F.E. 2004. Lung cancer in railroad workers exposed to diesel exhaust. Environ. Health Perspect. 112:1539–1543.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geiser, M., Rothen-Rutishauser, B., Kapp, N., Schürch, S., Kreyling, W., Schulz, H., Semmler, M., Im Hof, V., Heyder, J., and Gehr, P. 2005. Ultrafine particles cross cellular membranes by nonphagocytic mechanisms in lungs and in cultured cells. Environ. Health Perspect. 113:1555–1560.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghio, A.J., Kim, C., and Devlin, R.B. 2000. Concentrated ambient air particles induce mild pulmonary inflammation in healthy human volunteers. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 162:981–988.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gore, D.J., and Patrick, G. 1982. A quantitative study of the penetration of insoluble particles into the tissue of the conducting airways. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 26:149–161.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greim, H., and Ziegler-Skylakakis, K. 2007. Risk assessment for biopersistent granular particles. Inhal. Toxicol. 19(suppl. 1):199–204.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Greim, H., Borm, P., Schins, R., Donaldson, K., Driscoll, K., Hartwig, A., Kuempel, E., Oberdörster, G., and Speit, G. 2001. Toxicity of fibers and particles—Report of the workshop held in Munich, Germany, 26–27 October 2000. Inhal. Toxicol. 13:737–754.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gurr, J.R., Wang, A.S., Chen, C.H., and Jan, K.Y. 2005. Ultrafine titanium dioxide particles in the absence of photoactivation can induce oxidative damage to human bronchial epithelial cells. Toxicology 213(1–2):66–73.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heinrich, U., Dungworth, D.L., Pott, F., Peters, L., Dasenbrock, C., Levsen, K., Koch, W., Creutzenberg, O., and Schulte, A. 1994. The carcinogenic effects of carbon black particles and tar-pitch condensation aerosol after inhalation exposure of rats. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 38(suppl. 1):351–356. (Inhaled Particles VII.)
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Heinrich, U., Fuhst, R., Rittinghausen, S., Creutzenberg, O., Bellmann B., Koch, W., and Levsen, K. 1995. Chronic inhalation exposure of Wistar rats and two different strains of mice to diesel engine exhaust, carbon black and titanium dioxide. Inhal. Toxicol. 7:533–556.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hesterberg, T.W., Miller, W.C., McConnell, E.E., Chevalier, J., Hadley, J.G., Bernstein, D.M., Thevenaz, P., and Anderson, R. 1993. Chronic inhalation toxicity of size-separated glass fibers in Fischer 344 rats. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 20:464–467.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hesterberg, T.W., Bunn, W.B., McClellan, R.O., Hart, G.A., and Lapin, C.A. 2005. Carcinogenicity studies of diesel engine exhausts in laboratory animals: A review of past studies and a discussion of future research needs. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 35(5):379–411.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hirakawa, K., Mori, M., Yoshida, M., Oikawa, S., and Kawanishi, S. 2004. Photo-irradiated titanium dioxide catalyzes site specific DNA damage via generation of hydrogen peroxide. Free Radical Res. 38(5):439–447.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hoffmann, B., and Jöckel, K.-H. 2006. Lung cancer risk of occupational exposure to diesel motor emissions and coal mine dust. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1076:253–265.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ichinose, T., Yajima, L.Y., Nagashima, M., Takenoshita, S., Nagamachi, Y., and Sagai, M. 1997. Lung carcinogenesis and formation of 8-hydroxy-deoxyguanosine in mice by diesel exhaust particles. Carcinogenesis 18:185–192.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• International Committee on Nickel Carcinogenesis in Man. 1990. Report of the International Committee on Nickel Carcinogenesis in Man. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 16:1–82.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobsen, N.R., Saber, A.T., White, P., Møller, P., Pojana, G., Vogel, U., Loft, S., Gingerich, J., Soper, L., Douglas, G.R., and Wallin, H. 2007. Increased mutant frequency by carbon black, but not quartz, in the lacZ and cII transgenes of muta mouse lung epithelial cells. Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 48(6):451–461.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu, P.J., Ho, I.C., and Lee, T.C. 1998. Induction of sister chromatid exchanges and micronuclei by titanium dioxide in Chinese hamster ovary-K1 cells. Mutat. Res. 414(1–3):15–20.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LUA. Landesumweltamt Nordrhein-Westfalen. 2005. Jahreskenngrößen der Luftqualität in Nordrhein-Westfalen. PM10 und Inhaltsstoffe/PM2,5. Jahresmittelwerte und überschreitungshäufigkeiten (n) 01.01.2003 bis 31.12.2003. Jahreskenngrößen der Luftqualität in Nordrhein-Westfalen. Ruß in PM10. Jahresmittelwerte 01.01.2003 bis 31.12.2003. Accessed March 31, 2005, at http://www.lua.nrw.de.
   Google Scholar
• Luippold, R.S., Mundt, K.A., Austin, R.P., Liebig, E., Panko, J., Crump, C., Crump, K., and Proctor, D. 2003. Lung cancer mortality among chromate production workers. Occup. Environ. Med. 60:451–457.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lutz, W.K. 2000. A true threshold dose in chemical carcinogenesis cannot be defined for a population, irrespective of the mode of action. Hum. Exp. Toxicol. 19:566–568.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mauderly, J.L. 1997. Relevance of particle-induced rat lung tumors for assessing lung carcinogenic hazard and human lung cancer risk. Environ. Health Perspect. 105(suppl. 5):1337–1346.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mauderly, J.L., Jones, R.K., Griffith, W.C., Henderson, R.F., and McClellan, R.O. 1987. Diesel exhaust is a pulmonary carcinogen in rats exposed chronically by inhalation. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 9:208–221.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McConnell, E.E., Wagner, J.C., Skidmore, J.W., and Moore, J.A. 1984. A comparative study to the fibrogenic and carcinogenic effects of UICC Canadian Chrysotile B asbestos and glass microfibre (JM 100). In: Biological Effects of Man-Made Mineral Fibres. Proceedings of a WHO/IARC Conference in Association with JEMRB and TIMA. Copenhagen, April 20–22, 1982. Vol. 2. Copenhagen: World Health Organization, Regional Office for Europe. pp. 234–252.
   Google Scholar
• Mohr, U., Ernst, H., Roller, M., and Pott, F. 2006. Pulmonary tumor types induced in Wistar rats of the so-called ‘‘19-dust study.’’ Exp. Toxicol. Pathol. 58:13–20.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morfeld, P., Büchte, S.F., Wellmann, J., McCunney, R.J., and Piekarski, C. 2006. Lung cancer mortality and carbon black exposure: Cox regression analysis of a cohort from a German carbon black production plant. J. Occup. Environ. Med. 48(12):1230–1241.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Morrow, P.E., Muhle, H., and Mermelstein, R. 1991. Chronic inhalation study findings as a basis for proposing a new occupational dust exposure limit. J. Am. Coll. Toxicol. 10:279–289.
   Google Scholar
• Mroz, R.M., Schins, R.P., Li, H., Drost, E.M., Macnee, W., and Donaldson, K. 2007. Nanoparticle carbon black driven DNA damage induces growth arrest and AP-1 and NFkappaB DNA binding in lung epithelial A549 cell line. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 58(suppl. 5):461–470.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mroz, R.M., Schins, R.P., Li, H., Jimenez, L.A., Drost, E.M., Holownia, A., MacNee, W., and Donaldson, K. 2008. Nanoparticle-driven DNA damage mimics irradiation-related carcinogenesis pathways. Eur. Respir. J. 31(2):241–251.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakagawa, Y., Wakuri, S., Sakamoto, K., and Tanaka, N. 1997. The photogenotoxicity of titanium dioxide particles. Mutat. Res. 394(1–3):125–132.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Neumann, H.-G. 2006a. Die Risikobewertung von Kanzerogenen und die Wirkungsschwelle, Teil I. Bundesgesundheitsbl.–Gesundheitsforsch.–Gesundheitsschutz 49:665–674.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Neumann, H.-G. 2006b. Die Risikobewertung von Kanzerogenen und die Wirkungsschwelle, Teil II. Bundesgesundheitsbl.–Gesundheitsforsch.–Gesundheitsschutz 49:818–823.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Neumann, H.-G.2006c. Die Risikobewertung von Kanzerogenen und die Wirkungsschwelle, Teil III. Bundesgesundheitsbl.–Gesundheitsforsch.–Gesundheitsschutz 49:911–920.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nightingale, J.A., Maggs, R., Cullinan, P., Donnelly, L.E., Rogers, D.F., Kinnersley, R., Chung, K.F., Barnes, P.J., Ashmore, M., and Newman-Taylor, A. 2000. Airway inflammation after controlled exposure to diesel exhaust particulates. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 162:161–166.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nikula, K.J. 2000. Rat lung tumors induced by exposure to selected poorly soluble nonfibrous particles. Inhal. Toxicol. 12:97–119.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nikula, K.J., Snipes, M.B., Barr, E.B., Griffith, W.C., Henderson, R.F., and Mauderly, J.L. 1995. Comparative pulmonary toxicities and carcinogenicities of chronically inhaled diesel exhaust and carbon black in F344 rats. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 25:80–94.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Oberdörster, G. 1995. Lung particle overload: Implications for occupational exposures to particles. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 27:123–135.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oberdörster, G. 2002. Toxicokinetics and effects of fibrous and nonfibrous particles. Inhal. Toxicol. 14:29–56.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poma, A., Limongi, T., Pisani, C., Granato, V., and Picozzi, P. 2006. Genotoxicity induced by fine urban air particulate matter in the macrophages cell line RAW 264.7. Toxicol. In Vitro 20(6):1023–1029.
   Google Scholar
• Pope, C.A. 3rd. 2000. Epidemiology of fine particulate air pollution and human health: Biologic mechanisms and who’s at risk? Environ. Health Perspect. 108(suppl. 4):713–723.
   Google Scholar
• Pope, C.A., Burnett, R.T., Thun, M.J., Calle, E.E., Krewski, D., Ito, K., and Thurston, G.D. 2002. Lung cancer, cardiopulmonary mortality, and long-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 287:1132–1141.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pott, F., and Heinrich, U. 1990. Relative significance of different hydrocarbons for the carcinogenic potency of emissions from various incomplete combustion processes. In: Vainio, H., Sorsa, M., McMichael, A.J. (eds.) Complex Mixtures and Cancer Risk. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer. pp. 288–297. IARC Scientific Publ. No. 104.
   Google Scholar
• Pott, F., and Roller, M. 2005. Carcinogenicity study with nineteen granular dusts in rats. Eur. J. Oncol. 10:249–281.
   Google Scholar
• Pott, F., Roller, M., Althoff, G.-H., Höhr, D., and Friemann, J. 1998a. Acute lung toxicity of hydrophobic titanium dioxide in an intratracheal carcinogenicity study with nineteen dusts in rats. In: Vostal, J.J. (Ed.) Health effects of particulate matter in ambient air. Proc. Int. Conf. sponsored by the Air & Waste Management Assoc. and the Czech Medical Assoc. J.E. Purkyne, Prague, Czech Republic, April 23–25, 1997. VIP-80. Prague: Czech Medical Assoc., J.E. Purkyne. Pittsburgh, PA: Air and Waste Management Assoc., pp. 301–307.
   Google Scholar
• Pott, F., Althoff, G.-H., Roller, M., Höhr, D., and Friemann, J. 1998b. High acute toxicity of hydrophobic ultrafine titanium dioxide in an intratracheal study with several dusts in rats. In: Mohr, U. et al. (Eds.): Relationships Between Respiratory Disease and Exposure to Air Pollution. ILSI Monographs. Washington, D.C.: ILSI Press. pp. 270–272.
   Google Scholar
• Rahman, Q., Lohani, M., Dopp, E., Pemsel, H., Jonas, L., Weiss, D.G., and Schiffmann, D. 2002. Evidence that ultrafine titanium dioxide induces micronuclei and apoptosis in Syrian hamster embryo fibroblasts. Environ. Health Perspect. 110(8):797–800.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rausch, L.J., Bisinger, E.C., and Sharma A. 2004. Carbon black should not be classified as a human carcinogen based on rodent bioassay data. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 40(1):28–41.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Redmond, C.K. 1983. Cancer mortality among coke oven workers. Environ. Health Perspect. 52:67–73.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reeves, J.F., Davies, S.J., Dodd, N.J., and Jha, A.N. 2008. Hydroxyl radicals (*OH) are associated with titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticle-induced cytotoxicity and oxidative DNA damage in fish cells. Mutat. Res. 640(1–2):113–122.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Roller, M. 1998. Comment to the paper of Driscoll, K.E.: Role of inflammation in the development of rat lung tumors in response to chronic particle exposure. Inhal. Toxicol., 8 Suppl. 139–153 (1996). Letter to the editor. Inhal.Toxicol. 10:173–178.
   Google Scholar
• Roller, M. 2003. Dose-response relationships of granular bio-durable dusts in rat lungs: Does a cancer threshold exist? Eur. J. Oncol. 8:277–293.
   Google Scholar
• Roller, M. 2005. The LAI risk assessments in the Iight of the fine dust discussion in 2005 (Die Risikoabschätzungen des LAI vor dem Hintergrund der Feinstaubdiskussion im Jahre 2005). Gefahrstoffe–Reinhalt. Luft 65:425–434.
   Google Scholar
• Roller, M. 2007. Differences between the data bases, statistical analyses, and interpretations of lung tumors of the 19-dust study—Two controversial views. Exp. Toxicol. Pathol. 58:393–405.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roller, M. 2008. Research on the carcinogenicity of nanoparticles and other dusts (Untersuchungen zur krebserzeugenden Wirkung von Nanopartikeln und anderen Stäuben). 1. Edition. Dortmund: Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsschutz und Arbeitsmedizin 2008. 309 pages, project number: F 2083. http://www.baua.de/nn_7554/sid_969EA14D4E2A500F0F2D520F3C5E0DB4/nsc_true/en/Publications/Expert-Papers/F2083.html?__nnn=true
   Google Scholar
• Roller, M., and Pott, F. 2006. Lung tumour risk estimates from rat studies with not specifically toxic granular dusts. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1076:266–280.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roller, M., Akkan, Z., Hassauer, M., and Kalberlah, F. 2006. Extrapolating the risks of carcinogens from laboratory animals to humans (Risikoextrapolation vom Versuchstier auf den Menschen bei Kanzerogenen). 1. Edition. Bremerhaven: Wirtschaftsverlag NW Verlag für neue Wissenschaft GmbH 2006. (Schriftenreihe der Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsschutz und Arbeitsmedizin: Forschungsbericht, Fb 1078), 430 pages, project number: F 1876. http://www.baua.de/nn_7554/sid_77418B0D315268FE1744C68DAA91C589/nsc_true/en/Publications/Research-reports/2006/Fb1078.html__nnn=true
   Google Scholar
• Saber, A.T., Bornholdt, J., Dybdahl, M., Sharma, A.K., Loft, S., Vogel, U., and Wallin, H. 2005. Tumor necrosis factor is not required for particle-induced genotoxicity and pulmonary inflammation. Arch. Toxicol. 79:177–182.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salvi, S., Blomberg, A., Rudell, B., Kelly, F., Sandström, T., Holgate, S.T., and Frew, A. 1999. Acute inflammatory responses in the airways and peripheral blood after short-term exposure to diesel exhaust in healthy human volunteers. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 159:702–709.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Säverin, R., Bräunlich, A., Dahmann, D., Enderlein, G., and Heuchert, G. 1999. Diesel exhaust and lung cancer mortality in potash mining. Am. J. Ind. Med. 36:415–422.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schins, R.P., and Knaapen, A.M. 2007. Genotoxicity of poorly soluble particles. Inhal. Toxicol. 19(suppl. 1):189–198.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sorahan, T., and Harrington, J.M. 2007. A “lugged” analysis of lung cancer risks in UK carbon black production workers, 1951–2004. Am. J. Ind. Med. 50(8):555–564.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sorahan, T., Hamilton, L., van Tongeren, M., Gardiner, K., and Harrington, J.M. 2001. A cohort mortality study of U.K. carbon black workers, 1951–1996. Am. J. Ind. Med. 39(2):158–170.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stayner, L., Dankovic, D., Smith, R., and Steenland, K. 1998. Predicted lung cancer risk among miners exposed to diesel exhaust particles. Am. J. Ind. Med. 34:207–219.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steenland, K., Deddens, J., and Stayner, L. 1998. Diesel exhaust and lung cancer in the trucking industry: Exposure-response analyses and risk assessment. Am. J. Ind. Med. 34:220–228.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stenfors, N., Nordenhall, C., Salvi, S.S., Mudway, I., Soderberg, M., Blomberg, A., Helleday, R., Levin, J.O., Holgate, S.T., Kelly, F.J., Frew, A.J., and Sandstrom, T. 2004. Different airway inflammatory responses in asthmatic and healthy humans exposed to diesel. Eur. Respir. J. 23:82–86.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Struwe, M., Greulich, K.O., Suter, W., and Plappert-Helbig, U. 2007. The photo comet assay—A fast screening assay for the determination of photogenotoxicity in vitro. Mutat. Res. 632(1–2):44–57.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Türkez, H., and Geyikoğlu, F. 2007. An in vitro blood culture for evaluating the genotoxicity of titanium dioxide: The responses of antioxidant enzymes. Toxicol. Ind. Health 23(1):19–23.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2008. Benchmark Dose Software (BMDS). http://www.epa.gov/ncea/bmds/.
   Google Scholar
• Wang, J.J., Sanderson, B.J., and Wang, H. 2007. Cyto- and genotoxicity of ultrafine TiO2 particles in cultured human lymphoblastoid cells. Mutat. Res. 628(2):99–106.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wellmann, J., Weiland, S.K., Neiteler, G., Klein, G., and Straif, K. 2006. Cancer mortality in German carbon black workers 1976–98. Occup. Environ. Med. 63(8):513–521.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wichmann, H.-E. 2004. Positive gesundheitliche Auswirkungen des Einsatzes von Partikelfiltern bei Dieselfahrzeugen–Risikoabschätzung für die Mortalität in Deutschland. Umweltmed. Forsch. Prax. 9:85–99.
   Google Scholar
• Wichmann, H.-E. 2007. Diesel exhaust particles. Inhal. Toxicol. 19(suppl. 1): 241–244.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wolff, R.K., Henderson, R.F., Snipes, M.B., Griffith, W.C., Mauderly, J.L., Cuddihy, R.G., and McClellan, R.O. 1987. Alterations in particle accumulation and clearance in lungs of rats chronically exposed to diesel exhaust. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 9:154–166.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar