181
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Examining the Relationship between Anti-Black Racism, Community and Police Violence, and COVID-19 Vaccination

ORCID Icon, , , , &
Received 12 Jan 2023, Accepted 18 May 2023, Published online: 14 Aug 2023

References

  • Horton R. Offline: COVID-19 is not a pandemic. Lancet. 2023;401(10385):1324. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)32000-6.
  • Shim RS, Starks SM. COVID-19, structural racism, and mental health inequities: policy implications for an emerging syndemic. Psychiatr Serv. 2021;72(10):1193–1198. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.202000725.
  • Singer M. A dose of drugs, a touch of violence, a case of AIDS: conceptualizing the SAVA syndemic. Free Inq Creat Sociol. 1996;24(2):99–110.
  • Mendenhall E, Newfield T, Tsai AC. Syndemic theory, methods, and data. Soc Sci Med. 2022;295:114656. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114656.
  • Singer M, Clair S. Syndemics and public health: reconceptualizing disease in bio-social context. Med Anthropol Q. 2003;17(4):423–441. doi:10.1525/maq.2003.17.4.423.
  • Khazanchi R, Beiter ER, Gondi S, Beckman AL, Bilinski A, Ganguli I. County-level association of social vulnerability with COVID-19 cases and deaths in the USA. J Gen Intern Med. 2020;35(9):2784–2787. doi:10.1007/s11606-020-05882-3.
  • Laster Pirtle WN. Racial capitalism: a fundamental cause of novel coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic inequities in the United States. Health Educ Behav. 2020;47(4):504–508. doi:10.1177/1090198120922942.
  • Williams DR, Cooper LA. COVID-19 and health equity - a new kind of “herd Immunity. JAMA - J Am Med Assoc. 2020;323(24):2478. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.8051.
  • Alang S, McAlpine D, McCreedy E, Hardeman R. Police brutality and black health: setting the agenda for public health scholars. Am J Public Health. 2017;107(5):662–665. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2017.303691.
  • Walensky R. Media statement from CDC Director Rochelle P. Walensky, MD, MPH, on racism and health. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2021/s0408-racism-health.html. Published 2021. Accessed June 27, 2022.
  • Cokley K, Krueger N, Cunningham SR, et al. The COVID-19/racial injustice syndemic and mental health among Black Americans: the roles of general and race-related COVID worry, cultural mistrust, and perceived discrimination. J Community Psychol. 2022;50(6):2542–2561. doi:10.1002/jcop.22747.
  • Asabor EN, Warren JL, Cohen T. Racial/ethnic segregation and access to COVID-19 testing: spatial distribution of COVID-19 testing sites in the four largest highly segregated cities in the United States. Am J Public Health. 2022;112(3):518–526. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2021.306558.
  • Parolin Z, Lee EK. The role of poverty and racial discrimination in exacerbating the health consequences of COVID-19. Lancet Reg Health Am. 2022;7:100178. doi:10.1016/j.lana.2021.100178.
  • Hernandez I, Dickson S, Tang S, Gabriel N, Berenbrok LA, Guo J. Disparities in distribution of COVID-19 vaccines across US counties: a geographic information system–based cross-sectional study. PLoS Med. 2022;19(7):e1004069. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1004069.
  • Frisco ML, Van Hook J, Thomas KJA. Racial/ethnic and nativity disparities in U.S. Covid-19 vaccination hesitancy during vaccine rollout and factors that explain them. Soc Sci Med. 2022;307:115183. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.115183.
  • Bogart LM, Ojikutu BO, Tyagi K, et al. COVID-19 related medical mistrust, health impacts, and potential vaccine hesitancy among Black Americans living with HIV. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1999. 2021;86(2):200–207. doi:10.1097/QAI.0000000000002570.
  • Carter RT, Kirkinis K, Johnson VE. Relationships between trauma symptoms and race- based traumatic stress. Traumatology. 2020;26(1):11–18. doi:10.1037/trm0000217.
  • Kirkinis K, Pieterse AL, Martin C, Agiliga A, Brownell A. Racism, racial discrimination, and trauma: a systematic review of the social science literature. Ethn Health. 2021;26(3):392–412. doi:10.1080/13557858.2018.1514453.
  • Madubata IJ, Odafe MO, Talavera DC, Hong JH, Walker RL. Helplessness mediates racial discrimination and depression for African American young adults. J Black Psychol. 2018;44(7):626–643. doi:10.1177/0095798418811476.
  • Chae DH, Yip T, Martz CD, et al. Vicarious racism and vigilance during the COVID-19 pandemic: mental health implications among Asian and Black Americans. Public Health Rep. 2021;136(4):508–517. doi:10.1177/00333549211018675.
  • Zhou X, Nguyen-Feng VN, Wamser-Nanney R, Lotzin A. Racism, posttraumatic stress symptoms, and racial disparity in the U.S. COVID-19 syndemic. Behav Med. 2022;48(2):85–94. doi:10.1080/08964289.2021.2006131.
  • Rowhani-Rahbar A, Quistberg DA, Morgan ER, Hajat A, Rivara FP. Income inequality and firearm homicide in the US: a county-level cohort study. Inj Prev. 2019;25(Suppl 1):i25–i30. doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2018-043080.
  • Kawachi I, Kennedy BP, Lochner K, Prothrow-Stith D. Social capital, income inequality, and mortality. Am J Public Health. 1997;87(9):1491–1498. doi:10.2105/AJPH.87.9.1491.
  • US Department of Housing and Urban Development. In the Crossfire: The Impact of Gun Violence on Public Housing Communities | Office of Justice Programs. https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/crossfire-impact-gun-violence-public-housing-communities. Published 1999. Accessed April 17, 2023.
  • Johns Hopkins Center for Gun Violence Solutions. A Year in Review: 2020 Gun Deaths in the U.S. 2022.
  • Office of the Superintendent, Chicago Police Department. Chicago Police Department 2020 Annual Report. https://home.chicagopolice.org/wp-content/uploads/2020-Annual-Report.pdf. Published 2021.
  • Kim DY. The Impact of COVID-19 on gun violence across census tracts in NYC. Homicide Stud. 2022;26(4):379–402. doi:10.1177/10887679221077036.
  • DeVylder JE, Jun HJ, Fedina L, et al. Association of exposure to police violence with prevalence of mental health symptoms among urban residents in the United States. JAMA Netw Open. 2018;1(7):e184945. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.4945.
  • Lepore J. The invention of the police. New Yorker. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2020/07/20/the-invention-of-the-police. Published July 13, 2020. Accessed April 7, 2023.
  • Bhattar K. The history of policing in the US and its impact on Americans Today – UAB Institute for Human Rights Blog. UAB Institute for Human Rights Blog. https://sites.uab.edu/humanrights/2021/12/08/the-history-of-policing-in-the-us-and-its-impact-on-americans-today/. Published 2021. Accessed April 7, 2023.
  • Police shootings database 2015-2023: Search by race, age, department. Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/investigations/interactive/2022/police-shootings-database-2015-2022-search-by-race-age-department/. Accessed January 19, 2023.
  • Mapping Police Violence. Mapping police violence. https://mappingpoliceviolence.org/. Published 2023. Accessed January 19, 2023.
  • Mesic A, Franklin L, Cansever A, et al. The relationship between structural racism and Black-White disparities in fatal police shootings at the state level. J Natl Med Assoc. 2018;110(2):106–116. doi:10.1016/j.jnma.2017.12.002.
  • Chen MK, Christensen KL, John E, Owens E, Zhuo Y. Smartphone data reveal neighborhood-level racial disparities in police presence. http://arxiv.org/abs/2109.12491. Published March 9, 2022. Accessed April 7, 2023.
  • The ACLU. The Other Epidemic: Fatal Police Shootings in the Time of COVID-19. https://www.aclu.org/report/other-epidemic-fatal-police-shootings-time-covid-19. Published 2020. Accessed April 7, 2023.
  • Williams C, Vermund SH. Syndemic framework evaluation of severe COVID-19 outcomes in the United States: factors associated with race and ethnicity. Front Public Health. 2021;9:720264. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2021.720264.
  • RADx-UP CDCC. NIH RADx-UP common data elements. RADx-UP. https://radx-up.org/research/cdes/. Accessed December 5, 2022.
  • Mujahid MS, Diez Roux AV, Morenoff JD, Raghunathan T. Assessing the measurement properties of neighborhood scales: from psychometrics to ecometrics. Am J Epidemiol. 2007;165(8):858–867. doi:10.1093/aje/kwm040.
  • Devylder JE, Oh HY, Nam B, Sharpe TL, Lehmann M, Link BG. Prevalence, demographic variation and psychological correlates of exposure to police victimisation in four US cities. Epidemiol Psychiatr Sci. 2017;26(5):466–477. doi:10.1017/S2045796016000810.
  • Williams DR, Yan Y, Jackson JS, et al. Racial differences in physical and mental health. Socio-economic status, stress and discrimination. J Health Psychol. 1997;2(3):335–351. doi:10.1177/135910539700200305.
  • Shelton RC, Winkel G, Davis SN, et al. Validation of the group-based medical mistrust scale among urban black men. J Gen Intern Med. 2010;25(6):549–555. doi:10.1007/s11606-010-1288-y.
  • Kroenke K, Spitzer RL, Williams JBW. The PHQ-9: validity of a brief depression severity measure. J Gen Intern Med. 2001;16(9):606–613. doi:10.1046/j.1525-1497.2001.016009606.x.
  • Enders CK, Bandalos DL. The relative performance of full information maximum likelihood estimation for missing data in structural equation models. Struct Equ Model Multidiscip J. 2001;8(3):430–457. doi:10.1207/S15328007SEM0803_5.
  • Little TD, Cunningham WA, Shahar G, Widaman KF. To parcel or not to parcel: exploring the question, weighing the merits. Struct Equ Model Multidiscip J. 2002;9(2):151–173. doi:10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_1.
  • Muthen LK, Muthen BO. Mplus User’s Guide. Los Angeles, CA: Muthen & Muthen; 2015.
  • Kline R. Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling. New York City, NY: Guilford Publications; 2015.
  • Preacher KJ, Hayes AF. Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behav Res Methods. 2008;40(3):879–891. doi:10.3758/BRM.40.3.879.
  • Boes S, Sabariego C, Bickenbach J, Stucki G. How to capture the individual and societal impacts of syndemics: the lived experience of COVID-19. BMJ Glob Health. 2021;6(10):e006735. doi:10.1136/bmjgh-2021-006735.
  • Poulson M, Neufeld MY, Dechert T, Allee L, Kenzik KM. Historic redlining, structural racism, and firearm violence: a structural equation modeling approach. Lancet Reg Health Am. 2021;3(10):100052. doi:10.1016/j.lana.2021.100052.
  • Jacoby SF, Dong B, Beard JH, Wiebe DJ, Morrison CN. The enduring impact of historical and structural racism on urban violence in Philadelphia. Soc Sci Med. 2018;199:87–95. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.05.038.
  • Smith AC, Woerner J, Perera R, Haeny AM, Cox JM. An investigation of associations between race, ethnicity, and past experiences of discrimination with medical mistrust and COVID-19 protective strategies. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities. 2022;9(4):1430–1442. doi:10.1007/s40615-021-01080-x.
  • Hammond WP, Matthews D, Mohottige D, Agyemang A, Corbie-Smith G. Masculinity, medical mistrust, and preventive health services delays among community-dwelling African-American men. J Gen Intern Med. 2010;25(12):1300–1308. doi:10.1007/s11606-010-1481-z.
  • Dale SK, Bogart LM, Wagner GJ, Galvan FH, Klein DJ. Medical mistrust is related to lower longitudinal medication adherence among African-American males with HIV. J Health Psychol. 2016;21(7):1311–1321. doi:10.1177/1359105314551950.
  • Bogart LM, Dong L, Gandhi P, et al. What Contributes to COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy in Black Communities, and How Can It Be Addressed? Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation; 2021. doi:10.7249/rra1110-1.
  • Alang S, McAlpine DD, Hardeman R. Police brutality and mistrust in medical institutions. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities. 2020;7(4):760–768. doi:10.1007/s40615-020-00706-w.
  • Reverby SM. Racism, disease, and vaccine refusal: people of color are dying for access to COVID-19 vaccines. PLoS Biol. 2021;19(3):e3001167. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.3001167.
  • Corbie-Smith G. Vaccine hesitancy is a scapegoat for structural racism. JAMA Health Forum. 2021;2(3):e210434. doi:10.1001/jamahealthforum.2021.0434.
  • Smith A, Voisin D, Yang J, Tung E. Keeping your guard up: hypervigilance among urban residents affected by community and police violence. Health Aff. 2019;38(10):1662–1669. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2019.00560.
  • Alang S, McAlpine D, McClain M. Police encounters as stressors: associations with depression and anxiety across race. Socius. 2021;7:237802312199812. doi:10.1177/2378023121998128.
  • Benkert R, Cuevas A, Thompson HS, Dove-Medows E, Knuckles D. Ubiquitous yet unclear: a systematic review of medical mistrust. Behav Med. 2019;45(2):86–101. doi:10.1080/08964289.2019.1588220.
  • Lamuda PA, Azar A, Taylor BG, Balawajder EF, Pollack HA, Schneider JA. Latent class analysis of medical mistrust and COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy among adults in the United States just prior to FDA emergency use authorization. Vaccine. 2023;41(16):2671–2679. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2023.03.016.
  • Desai MU, Bellamy C, Guy K, Costa M, O’Connell MJ, Davidson L. “If you want to know about the book, ask the author”: enhancing community engagement through participatory research in clinical mental health settings. Behav Med. 2019;45(2):177–187. doi:10.1080/08964289.2019.1587589.
  • Chatterjee P, Werner RM. Gender disparity in citations in high-impact journal articles. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4(7):e2114509. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.14509.
  • Bertolero MA, Dworkin JD, David SU. Racial and ethnic imbalance in neuroscience reference lists and intersections with gender. bioRxiv. 2020. doi:10.1101/2020.10.12.336230.
  • Dworkin JD, Linn KA, Teich EG, Zurn P, Shinohara RT, Bassett DS. The extent and drivers of gender ­imbalance in neuroscience reference lists. Nat Neurosci. 2020;23(8):918–926. doi:10.1038/s41593-020-0658-y.
  • Lerback JC, Hanson B, Wooden P. Association between author diversity and acceptance rates and citations in peer-reviewed earth science manuscripts. Earth Space Sci. 2020;7(5):e2019EA000946. doi:10.1029/2019EA000946.
  • Davies SW, Putnam HM, Ainsworth T, et al. Promoting inclusive metrics of success and impact to dismantle a discriminatory reward system in science. PLoS Biol. 2021;19(6):e3001282. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.3001282.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.