174
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Evaluating Predictors and Outcomes of Emotional Exhaustion and Depersonalization for Women Officers

ORCID Icon & ORCID Icon

REFERENCES

  • Abramis, D. J. (1994). Work role ambiguity, job satisfaction, and job performance: Meta-analyses and review. Psychological Reports, 75(3_suppl), 1411–1433. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1994.75.3f.141
  • Acker, J. (2006). Inequality regimes: Gender, class, and race in organizations. Gender & Society, 20(4), 441–464. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243206289499
  • Alex, N. (1969). Black in blue. Meredith.
  • Archbold, C. A., & Hassell, K. D. (2009). Paying a marriage tax: An examination of the barriers to the promotion of female police officers. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 32(1), 56–74. https://doi.org/10.1108/13639510910937111
  • Backteman-Erlanson, S., Padyab, M., & Brulin, C. (2013). Prevalence of burnout and associations with psychosocial work environment, physical strain, and stress of conscience among Swedish female and male police personnel. Police Practice and Research, 14(6), 491–505. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2012.736719
  • Baldwin, S., Bennell, C., Andersen, J. P., Semple, T., & Jenkins, B. (2019). Stress-activity mapping: Physiological responses during general duty police encounters. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2216. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02216
  • Batton, C., & Wright, E. M. (2019). Patriarchy and the structure of employment in criminal justice: Differences in the experiences of men and women working in the legal profession, corrections, and law enforcement. Feminist Criminology, 14(3), 287–306. https://doi.org/10.1177/15570851187697
  • Berdahl, J. L., Cooper, M., Glick, P., Livingston, R. W., & Williams, J. C. (2018). Work as a masculinity contest. Journal of Social Issues, 74(3), 422–448. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12289
  • Bonner, H. S., & Brimhall, A. (2022). Gender differences in law enforcement officer stress and coping strategies. Police Quarterly, 25(1), 59–89. https://doi.org/10.1177/10986111211037584
  • Brady, P. Q. (2017). Crimes against caring: Exploring the risk of secondary traumatic stress, burnout, and compassion satisfaction among child exploitation investigators. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 32(4), 305–318. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-016-9223-8
  • Brown, J., & Fleming, J. (2022). Exploration of individual and work-related impacts on police officers and police staff working in support or front-line roles during the UK’s first COVID lockdown. The Police Journal: Theory, Practice and Principles, 95(1), 50–72. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032258X211052891
  • Bürger, B., & Nachreiner, F. (2018). Individual and organizational consequences of employee-determined flexibility in shift schedules of police patrols. Police Practice and Research, 19(3), 284–303. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2017.1419130
  • Chaiyavej, S., & Morash, M. (2008). Dynamics of sexual harassment for policewomen working alongside men. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 31(3), 485–498. https://doi.org/10.1108/13639510810895821
  • Cooper, C. L., & Marshall, J. (1976). Occupational sources of stress: A review of the literature relating to coronary heart disease and mental ill health. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 49(1), 11–28. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8325.1976.tb00325.x
  • Cordner, G., & Cordner, A. (2011). Stuck on a plateau?: Obstacles to recruitment, selection, and retention of women police. Police Quarterly, 14(3), 207–226. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611111413990
  • Crank, J. P. (2014). Understanding police culture. Routledge.
  • Crime Data Explorer. (2022). Law enforcement employees breakout. Federal Bureau of Investigation. https://crime-data-explorer.fr.cloud.gov/pages/le/pe
  • Deschamps, F., Paganon-Badinier, I., Marchand, A. C., & Merle, C. (2003). Sources and assessment of occupational stress in the police. Journal of Occupational Health, 45(6), 358–364. https://doi.org/10.1539/joh.45.358
  • Dowler, K. (2005). Job satisfaction, burnout, and perception of unfair treatment: The relationship between race and police work. Police Quarterly, 8(4), 476–489. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611104269787
  • Dowler, K., & Arai, B. (2008). Stress, gender and policing: The impact of perceived gender discrimination on symptoms of stress. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 10(2), 123–135. https://doi.org/10.1350/ijps.2008.10.2.81
  • Duxbury, L., Bardoel, A., & Halinski, M. (2021). ‘Bringing the Badge home’: Exploring the relationship between role overload, work-family conflict, and stress in police officers. Policing and Society, 31(8), 997–1016. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2020.1822837
  • Eddy, A., Bergman, A. L., Kaplan, J., Goerling, R. J., & Christopher, M. S. (2021). A qualitative investigation of the experience of mindfulness training among police officers. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 36(1), 63–71. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-019-09340-7
  • Epstein, R. M., & Krasner, M. S. (2013). Physician resilience: What it means, why it matters, and how to promote it. Academic Medicine : Journal of the Association of American Medical Colleges, 88(3), 301–303. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0b013e318280cff0
  • Erickson, R. J., & Ritter, C. (2001). Emotional labor, burnout, and inauthenticity: Does gender matter? Social Psychology Quarterly, 64(2), 146–163. https://doi.org/10.2307/3090130
  • Frank, J., Lambert, E. G., & Qureshi, H. (2017). Examining police officer work stress using the job demands–resources model. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 33(4), 348–367. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986217724248
  • Grandey, A. A. (2003). When "the show must go on": Surface acting and deep acting as determinants of emotional exhaustion and peer-rated service delivery. Academy of Management Journal, 46(1), 86–96. https://doi.org/10.2307/30040678
  • Haarr, R. N., & Morash, M. (1999). Gender, race, and strategies of coping with occupational stress in policing. Justice Quarterly, 16(2), 303–336. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418829900094151
  • Harel, O. (2009). The estimation of R2 and adjusted R2 in incomplete data sets using multiple imputation. Journal of Applied Statistics, 36(10), 1109–1118. https://doi.org/10.1080/02664760802553000
  • Hartley, T. A., Mnatsakanova, A., Burchfiel, C. M., & Violanti, J. M. (2014). Stressors and associated health effects for women police officers. In J. M. Violanti (Ed.), Dying for the Job: Police work exposure and health (pp. 93–114). Charles C. Thomas Publisher, Ltd.
  • Hawkins, H. C. (2001). Police officer burnout: A partial replication of Maslach’s Burnout Inventory. Police Quarterly, 4(3), 343–360. https://doi.org/10.1177/109861101129197888
  • He, N., Zhao, J., & Archbold, C. A. (2002). Gender and police stress: The convergent and divergent impact of work environment, work-family conflict, and stress coping mechanisms of female and male police officers. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 25(4), 687–708. https://doi.org/10.1108/1363.9510210450631
  • Hebl, M., Cheng, S. K., & Ng, L. C. (2020). Modern discrimination in organizations. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 7(1), 257–282. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012119-044948
  • Held, V. (2006). The ethics of care: Personal, political, and global. Oxford University Press.
  • Hussain, M. (2022, January). Examining employment and diversity in the protective service occupations. Monthly Labor Review,1, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.21916/mlr.2022.1
  • Johnson, J. V., & Hall, E. M. (1988). Job strain, work place social support, and cardiovascular disease: A cross-sectional study of a random sample of the Swedish working population. American Journal of Public Health, 78(10), 1336–1342. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.78.10.1336
  • Johnson, L. B., Todd, M., & Subramanian, G. (2005). Violence in police families: Work-family spillover. Journal of Family Violence, 20(1), 3–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-005-1504-4
  • Jones, T., & Newburn, T. (2002). The transformation of policing? Understanding current trends in policing systems. British Journal of Criminology, 42(1), 129–146. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/42.1.129
  • Kanter, R. (1977). Men and women of the corporation. Basic Books.
  • Kleinke, K. (2017). Multiple imputation under violated distributional assumptions: A systematic evaluation of the assumed robustness of predictive mean matching. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 42(4), 371–404. https://doi.org/10.3102/1076998616687084
  • Kop, N., & Euwema, M. C. (2001). Occupational stress and the use of force by Dutch police officers. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 28(5), 631–652. https://doi.org/10.1177/009385480102800505
  • Krimmel, J. T., & Gormley, P. E. (2003). Tokenism and job satisfaction for policewomen. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 28(1), 73–88. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02885753
  • Kurtović, A., Vuković, I., & Gajić, M. (2018). The effect of locus of control on university students’ mental health: Possible mediation through self-esteem and coping. The Journal of Psychology, 152(6), 341–357. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2018.1463962
  • Kurtz, D. L. (2008). Controlled burn: The gendering of stress and burnout in modern policing. Feminist Criminology, 3(3), 216–238. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557085108321672
  • Kurtz, D. L. (2012). Roll call and the second shift: The influences of gender and family on police stress. Police Practice and Research, 13(1), 71–86. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2011.596714
  • Kwak, H., McNeeley, S., & Kim, S. H. (2018). Emotional labor, role characteristics, and police officer burnout in South Korea: The mediating effect of emotional dissonance. Police Quarterly, 21(2), 223–249. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611118757230
  • Leiter, M. P., & Maslach, C. (2003). Areas of worklife: A structured approach to organizational predictors of job burnout. In P. L. Perrewe & D.C. Ganster (Eds.), Emotional and physiological processes and positive intervention strategies (pp. 91–134). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1479-3555(03)03003-8
  • Lindblom, K. M., Linton, S. J., Fedeli, C., & Bryngelsson, I. L. (2006). Burnout in the working population: Relations to psychosocial work factors. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 13(1), 51–59. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327558ijbm1301_7
  • Magnusson Hanson, L., Theorell, T., Oxenstierna, G., Hyde, M., & Westerlund, H. (2008). Demand, control and social climate as predictors of emotional exhaustion symptoms in working Swedish men and women. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 36(7), 737–743. https://doi.org/10.1177/1403494808090164
  • Martinussen, M., Richardsen, A. M., & Burke, R. J. (2007). Job demands, job resources, and burnout among police officers. Journal of Criminal Justice, 35(3), 239–249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2007.03.001
  • Maslach, C., & Jackson, S. E. (1981). The measurement of experienced burnout. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 2(2), 99–113. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.4030020205
  • Maslach, C., & Jackson, S. E. (1996). Maslach Burnout Inventory—Human Services Survey (MBI-HSS). In C. Maslach, S. E. Jackson, & M. P. Leiter (Eds.), MBI manual (pp. 192–198). Consulting Psychologists Press.
  • Maslach, C., Schaufeli, W. B., & Leiter, M. P. (2001). Job burnout. Annual Review of Psychology, 52(1), 397–422. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.397
  • Matos, K., O’Neill, O. M., & Lei, X. (2018). Toxic leadership and the masculinity contest culture: How “win or die” cultures breed abusive leadership. Journal of Social Issues, 74(3), 500–528. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12284
  • McCarty, W. P., Aldirawi, H., Dewald, S., & Palacios, M. (2019). Burnout in blue: An analysis of the extent and primary predictors of burnout among law enforcement officers in the United States. Police Quarterly, 22(3), 278–304. https://doi.org/10.1177/109861111982803
  • McCarty, W. P., Zhao, J., & Garland, B. E. (2007). Occupational stress and burnout between male and female police officers: Are there any gender differences? Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 30(4), 672–691. https://doi.org/10.1108/13639510710833938
  • Montero-Marin, J., Prado-Abril, J., Piva Demarzo, M. M., Gascon, S., & García-Campayo, J. (2014). Coping with stress and types of burnout: Explanatory power of different coping strategies. PloS One, 9(2), e89090. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0089090
  • Morabito, M. S., Pattavina, A., & Williams, L. M. (2021). Vicarious trauma, secondary traumatic stress or burnout?: An exploratory study of the effects of investigating sexual assault cases on detectives. Policing: An International Journal, 44(1), 77–92. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-07-2020-0123
  • Morabito, M. S., & Shelley, T. O. C. (2018). Constrained agency theory and leadership: A new perspective to understand how female police officers overcome the structural and social impediments to promotion. Feminist Criminology, 13(3), 287–308. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557085118763104
  • Morash, M., & Haarr, R. N. (1995). Gender, workplace problems, and stress in policing. Justice Quarterly, 12(1), 113–140. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418829500092591
  • Morash, M., Haarr, R., & Kwak, D. H. (2006). Multilevel influences on police stress. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 22(1), 26–43. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986205285055
  • Morash, M., Kwak, D. H., & Haarr, R. (2006). Gender differences in the predictors of police stress. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 29(3), 541–563. https://doi.org/10.1108/13639510610684755
  • Morin, R., Parker, K., Stepler, R., & Mercer, A. (2017). Behind the badge. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2017/01/11/behind-the-badge/
  • Morris, T. P., White, I. R., & Royston, P. (2014). Tuning multiple imputation by predictive mean matching and local residual draws. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 14(1), 75. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-14-75
  • National Institute of Justice. (2019, July). Women in policing: Breaking barriers and blazing a path. https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/women-policing-breaking-barriers-and-blazing-path
  • Neely, P., & Cleveland, C. S. (2011). The impact of job-related stressors on incidents of excessive force by police officers. American Journal of Health Sciences (AJHS), 3(1), 63–74. https://doi.org/10.19030/ajhs.v3i1.6755
  • Ng, T. W. H., Sorensen, K. L., & Eby, L. T. (2006). Locus of control at work: A meta-analysis. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 27(8), 1057–1087. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.416
  • Padavic, I., & Reskin, B. (2002). Women and men at work. SAGE Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452233857
  • Police Executive Research Forum. (2019). The workforce crisis, and what police agencies are doing about it. https://www.policeforum.org/free-online-documents
  • Police Executive Research Forum. (2021). Survey on police workforce trends. https://www.policeforum.org/workforcesurveyjune2021
  • Policing Project. (2021). New York School of Law. https://www.policingproject.org/
  • Powell, C. E., & Schuck, A. M. (2022). Examining explanations for differences in exhaustion and depersonalization between Black and White officers. Policing: An International Journal, 45(6), 1008–1022. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-03-2022-0045
  • Rabe-Hemp, C. (2008). Survival in an all boys club. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 31(2), 251–270. https://doi.org/10.1108/13639510810878712
  • Rabe-Hemp, C. (2018). Thriving in an all boys club: Female police officers and their fight for equity. Rowman & Littlefield.
  • Rabe-Hemp, C. E., & Humiston, G. S. (2015). A survey of maternity policies and pregnancy accommodations in American police departments. Police Practice and Research, 16(3), 239–253. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2013.872988
  • Rosenbaum, D. P., Hartnett, S. H., Skogan, W. G., Mastrofski, S. D., Cordner, G. W., Fridell, L. A., McCarty, W., McDevitt, J., & Alderden, M. (2013-2015). The National Police Research Platform, Phase 2 [United States], 2013-2015. ICPSR36497-v1. Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research [distributor], 2016-09-29. https://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR36497.v1
  • Rossler, M. T., Rabe-Hemp, C. E., Peuterbaugh, M., & Scheer, C. (2020). Influence of gender on perceptions of barriers to a police patrol career. Police Quarterly, 23(3), 368–395. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611120907870
  • Schuck, A. M. (2018). Women in policing and the response to rape: Representative bureaucracy and organizational change. Feminist Criminology, 13(3), 237–259. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557085117753668
  • Schuck, A. M. (2020). Women policing in the US: Post-gender institutions?. In C. Rabe-Hemp & V. Garcia (Eds.), Women police across the globe (pp. 31–47). Rowman & Littlefield.
  • Schuck, A. M., Rabe-Hemp, C .E., & Harris, C. (forthcoming). A feminist ethics of care approach to de-escalation in policing. In M. S. Staller, S. Koerner, S. & B. Zaiser, B (Eds.), Handbook of police conflict management and use of force training. Palgrave.
  • Shane, J. M. (2010). Organizational stressors and police performance. Journal of Criminal Justice, 38(4), 807–818. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2010.05.008
  • Shelley, T., Morabito, M., & Tobin, J. (2011). Gendered institutions and gender roles: Understanding the experiences of women in policing. Criminal Justice Studies, 24(4), 351–367. https://doi.org/10.1080/1478601X.2011.625698
  • Siegrist, J. (1996). Adverse health effects of high-effort/low-reward conditions. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 1(1), 27–41. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.1.1.27
  • Sierra‐Arévalo, M. (2021). American policing and the danger imperative. Law & Society Review, 55(1), 70–103. https://doi.org/10.1111/lasr.12526
  • Silvestri, M. (2007). Doing” police leadership: Enter the “New Smart Macho. Policing and Society, 17(1), 38–58. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439460601124130
  • Smoktunowicz, E., Baka, L., Cieslak, R., Nichols, C. F., Benight, C. C., & Luszczynska, A. (2015). Explaining counterproductive work behaviors among police officers: The indirect effects of job demands are mediated by job burnout and moderated by job control and social support. Human Performance, 28(4), 332–350. https://doi.org/10.1080/08959285.2015.1021045
  • StataCorp (2021). Stata Statistical Software: Release 17. StataCorp LLC.
  • Stichman, A. J., Hassell, K. D., & Archbold, C. A. (2010). Strength in numbers? A test of Kanter’s theory of tokenism. Journal of Criminal Justice, 38(4), 633–639. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2010.04.036
  • Stroebe, K., & Missler, M. (2016). A resource pathway to action against discrimination: How burnout and work–family balance form obstacles to action. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 26(1), 18–31. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.2230
  • Thompson, B. M., Kirk, A., & Brown, D. F. (2005). Work based support, emotional exhaustion, and spillover of work stress to the family environment: A study of policewomen. Stress and Health, 21(3), 199–207. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.1056
  • Trombka, M., Demarzo, M., Bacas, D. C., Antonio, S. B., Cicuto, K., Salvo, V., Claudino, F. C. A., Ribeiro, L., Christopher, M., Garcia-Campayo, J., & Rocha, N. S. (2018). Study protocol of a multicenter randomized controlled trial of mindfulness training to reduce burnout and promote quality of life in police officers: The POLICE study. BMC Psychiatry, 18(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-018-1726-7
  • Trzebiatowski, T., & Triana, M. D. C. (2020). Family responsibility discrimination, power distance, and emotional exhaustion: When and why are there gender differences in work–life conflict? Journal of Business Ethics, 162(1), 15–29. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-018-4000-5
  • Vallerand, R. J., Blanchard, C., Mageau, G. A., Koestner, R., Ratelle, C., Leonard, M., Gagne, M., & Marsolais, J. (2003). Les passions de l’ame: On obsessive and harmonious passion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(4), 756–767. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.4.756
  • Violanti, J. M., Fekedulegn, D., Hartley, T. A., Charles, L. E., Andrew, M. E., Ma, C. C., & Burchfiel, C. M. (2016). Highly rated and most frequent stressors among police officers: Gender differences. American Journal of Criminal Justice : AJCJ, 41(4), 645–662. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-016-9342-x
  • Webster, J. H. (2013). Police officer perceptions of occupational stress: The state of the art. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 36(3), 636–652. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-03-2013-0021
  • Wilski, M., Chmielewski, B., & Tomczak, M. (2015). Work locus of control and burnout in Polish physiotherapists: The mediating effect of coping styles. International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health, 28(5), 875–889. https://doi.org/10.13075/ijomeh.1896.00287
  • World Health Organization. (2022). International statistical classification of disease and related health problems (11th ed.). https://icd.who.int/en
  • Zulkafaly, F., Kamaruddin, K., & Hassan, N. H. M. (2017). Coping strategies and job stress in policing: A literature review. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 7(3), 458–467. https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v7-i3/2749
  • Zwack, J., & Schweitzer, J. (2013). If every fifth physician is affected by burnout, what about the other four? Resilience strategies of experienced physicians. Academic Medicine : Journal of the Association of American Medical Colleges, 88(3), 382–389. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0b013e318281696b

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.