REFERENCES
- Acker, J. (1990). Hierarchies, jobs, bodies: A theory of gendered organizations. Gender & Society, 4(2), 139–158. https://doi.org/10.1177/089124390004002002
- Aiello, M. F. (2019). Gendered messages in police recruitment: Understanding the impacts of descriptors and physical fitness requirements on potential applicants. Policing: An International Journal, 42(3), 455–473. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-05-2018-0072
- Archbold, C. A., & Schulz, D. M. (2008). Making rank: The lingering effects of tokenism on female police officers’ promotion aspirations. Police Quarterly, 11(1), 50–73. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611107309628
- Ba, B. A., Knox, D., Mummolo, J., & Rivera, R. (2021). The role of officer race and gender in police-civilian interactions in Chicago. Science (New York, N.Y.), 371(6530), 696–702. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abd8694
- Bazley, T. D., Lersch, K. M., & Mieczkowski, T. (2007). Officer force versus suspect resistance: A gendered analysis of patrol officers in an urban police department. Journal of Criminal Justice, 35(2), 183–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2007.01.005
- Bonilla-Silva, E. (2001). White supremacy and racism in the post–civil rights era. Lynne Rienner.
- Bonilla-Silva, E. (2003). Racial attitudes or racial ideology? an alternative paradigm for examining actors' racial views. Journal of Political Ideologies, 8(1): 63–82.
- Bonner, H. S., & Brimhall, A. (2022). Gender differences in law enforcement officer stress and coping strategies. Police Quarterly, 25(1), 59–89. https://doi.org/10.1177/10986111211037584
- Brooks, C. (2022). Sheriffs’ offices personnel, 2020. Bureau of Justice Statistics.
- Brown, M. K. (1988). Working the street: Police discretion and the dilemmas of reform. Russell Sage Foundation.
- Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2022). National Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries in 2021. U.S. Department of Labor. December 16. Retrieved February 7, 2023, from https://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/cfoi.pdf
- Cambareri, J. F., & Kuhns, J. B. (2018). Perceptions and perceived challenges associated with a hypothetical career in law enforcement: Differences among male and female college students. Police Quarterly, 21(3), 335–357. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611118760862
- Cochran, J. K., & Bromley, M. L. (2003). The myth (?) of the police sub‐culture. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 26(1), 88–117. https://doi.org/10.1108/13639510310460314
- Drew, J. M., & Saunders, J. (2020). Navigating the police promotion system: A comparison by gender of moving up the ranks. Police Practice and Research, 21(5), 476–490. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2019.1672290
- Engel, R. S., & Worden, R. E. (2003). Police officers’ attitudes, behavior, and supervisory influences: An analysis of problem solving. Criminology, 41(1), 131–166. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2003.tb00984.x
- Ferraro, K. F. (1996). Women’s fear of victimization: Shadow of sexual assault? Social Forces, 75(2), 667–690. https://doi.org/10.2307/2580418
- Franklin, C. A. (2005). Male peer support and the police culture: Understanding the resistance and opposition of women in policing. Women & Criminal Justice, 16(3), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1300/J012v16n03_01
- Gaub, J. E. (2020). Understanding police misconduct correlates: does gender matter in predicting career-ending misconduct? Women & Criminal Justice, 30(4), 264–289. https://doi.org/10.1080/08974454.2019.1605561
- Gaub, J. E., & Holtfreter, K. (2022). Keeping the women out: A gendered organizational approach to understanding early career-ending police misconduct. Crime & Delinquency, 68(5), 892–915. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128721999332
- Gau, J. M., & Paoline, E. A. III (2017). Officer race, role orientation, and cynicism toward citizens. Justice Quarterly, 34(7), 1246–1271. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2017.1380838
- Gau, J. M., & Paoline, E. A. III (2020). Equal under the law: Officers’ perceptions of equitable treatment and justice in policing. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 45(3), 474–492. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-020-09525-5
- Gau, J. M., Paoline, E. A., III., & Roman, K. L. (2023). Hispanic and Latinx police officers’ perceptions of the working environment. Crime & Delinquency, 69(9), 1567–1589.
- Gau, J. M., Terrill, W., & Paoline, E. A. III (2013). Looking up: Explaining police promotional aspirations. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 40(3), 247–269. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854812458426
- Goodison, S. E. (2022). Local police departments personnel, 2020. Bureau of Justice Statistics.
- Guajardo, S. A. (2016). Women in policing: A longitudinal assessment of female officers in supervisory positions in the New York City Police Department. Women & Criminal Justice, 26(1), 20–36. https://doi.org/10.1080/08974454.2014.997418
- Gustafson, J. L. (2008). Tokenism in policing: An empirical test of Kanter’s hypothesis. Journal of Criminal Justice, 36(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2007.12.001
- He, N., Zhao, J., & Archbold, C. A. (2002). Gender and police stress: The convergent and divergent impact of work environment, work-family conflict, and stress coping mechanisms of female and male police officers. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 25(4), 687–708. https://doi.org/10.1108/13639510210450631
- Herbert, S. (1998). Police subculture reconsidered. Criminology, 36(2), 343–370. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1998.tb01251.x
- Herbert, S. (2001). Hard charger’ or 'station queen?' Policing and the masculinist state. Gender, Place and Culture: A Journal of Feminist Geography, 8(1), 55–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690120026325
- Hoffman, P. B., & Hickey, E. R. (2005). Use of force by female police officers. Journal of Criminal Justice, 33(2), 145–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2004.12.006
- Ingram, J. R., Paoline, E. A., III., & Terrill, W. (2013). A multilevel framework for understanding police culture: The role of the workgroup. Criminology, 51(2), 365–397. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9125.12009
- Kanter. (1977). Men and women of the corporation. Basic Books.
- Kappeler, V. E., Sluder, R. D., & Alpert, G. P. (1998). Forces of deviance: Understanding the dark side of policing. Waveland Press.
- Kerner Commission. (1968). National advisory commission on civil disorder. US Government Printing Office.
- LaGrange, R. L., & Ferraro, K. F. (1989). Assessing age and gender differences in perceived risk and fear of crime. Criminology, 27(4), 697–720. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1989.tb01051.x
- Lonsway, K., Wood, M., Fickling, M., De Leon, A., Moore, M., Harrington, P., Smeal, E., & Spillar, K. (2002). Men, women, and police excessive force: A tale of two genders. National Center for Women & Policing. Feminist Majority Foundation.
- Martin, S. E. (1980). Breaking and entering: Policewomen on patrol. University of California Press.
- Martin, S. E., & Jurik, N. C. (2007). Doing justice, doing gender: Women in legal and criminal justice occupations (2nd ed.). Sage Publications.
- Martin, S. E. (1996, July 29–31). Doing gender, doing police work: An examination of the barriers to the integration of women officers [Paper presentation]. Paper Presented at the Australian Institute of Criminology Conference First Australasian Women Police Conference, Sydney.
- McCarthy, D. J. (2013). Gendering ‘soft’policing: Multi-agency working, female cops, and the fluidities of police culture/s. Policing and Society, 23(2), 261–278. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2012.703199
- McLean, K., Wolfe, S., Rojek, J., Alpert, G., & Smith, M. (2020). Police officers as warriors or guardians: Empirical reality or intriguing rhetoric? Justice Quarterly, 37(6), 1096–1118. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2018.1533031
- Morabito, M. S., & Shelley, T. O. C. (2018). Constrained agency theory and leadership: A new perspective to understand how female police officers overcome the structural and social impediments to promotion. Feminist Criminology, 13(3), 287–308. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557085118763104
- Morash, M., & Haarr, R. N. (2012). Doing, redoing, and undoing gender: Variation in gender identities of women working as police officers. Feminist Criminology, 7(1), 3–23. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557085111413253
- Muir, W. K. (1977). Police: Streetcorner politicians. University of Chicago Press.
- Murray, S. E. (2021). Seeing and doing gender at work: A qualitative analysis of Canadian male and female police officers. Feminist Criminology, 16(1), 91–109. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557085120914351
- National Institute of Justice. (2019). Women in policing: Breaking barriers and blazing a path. US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs.
- Paoline, E. A. III (2001). Rethinking police culture: Officers’ occupational attitudes. LFB Publishing.
- Paoline, E. A. III (2003). Taking stock: Toward a richer understanding of police culture. Journal of Criminal Justice, 31(3), 199–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0047-2352(03)00002-3
- Paoline, E. A. III (2004). Shedding light on police culture: An examination of officers’ occupational attitudes. Police Quarterly, 7(2), 205–236. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611103257074
- Paoline, E. A., III., & Gau, J. M. (2018). Police occupational culture: Testing the monolithic model. Justice Quarterly, 35(4), 670–698. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2017.1335764
- Paoline, E. A., III., & Gau, J. M. (2023). Police stress: the role of occupational culture and officer characteristics. Policing: An International Journal, 46(1), 194–208. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-07-2022-0102
- Paoline, E. A., III,., & Sloan, III, J. J. (forthcoming). Women in the police academy: A national-level exploration of the gendered nature of non-completion. Women & Criminal Justice.
- Paoline, E. A., III., & Terrill, W. (2004). Women police officers and the use of coercion. Women & Criminal Justice, 15(3–4), 97–119. https://doi.org/10.1300/J012v15n03_05
- Paoline, E. A., III., & Terrill, W. (2014). Police culture: Adapting to the strains of the job. Carolina Academic Press.
- Porter, L. E., & Prenzler, T. (2017). Police officer gender and excessive force complaints: An Australian study. Policing and Society, 27(8), 865–883. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2015.1114616
- President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice. (1967). The challenge of crime in a free society. U. S. Government Printing Office.
- President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing. (2015). Final report of the president’s task force on 21st century policing. Office of Community-Oriented Policing Services.
- Price, J. (2021). Female soldiers are getting new body armor designed just for them. National Public Radio. Retrieved June 7, 2023, from https://www.npr.org/2021/07/19/1017774038/female-soldiers-are-excited-about-new-body-armor-that-is-designed-for-them
- Prokos, A., & Padavic, I. (2002). ‘There oughtta be a law against bitches’: Masculinity lessons in police academy training. Gender, Work & Organization, 9(4), 439–459. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0432.00168
- Rabe-Hemp, C. E. (2009). POLICEwomen or policeWOMEN? Doing gender and police work. Feminist Criminology, 4(2), 114–129. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557085108327659
- Rabe-Hemp, C. E. (2018). Thriving in an all-boys club: Female police officers and their fight for equality. Rowman & Littlefield.
- Rabe-Hemp, C. E., & Schuck, A. M. (2007). Violence against police officers: Are female officers at greater risk? Police Quarterly, 10(4), 411–428. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611107304326
- Rabe-Hemp, C. E., Schuck, A. M., & Navarro, J. C. (2023). The brass cliff? Women police chiefs and police reform. In Conley, H., & Koskinen Sandberg, P. (Eds.), Handbook on gender and public sector employment. Edward Elgar Publishing.
- Remmington, P. W. (1983). Women in the police: Integration or separation? Qualitative Sociology, 6(2), 118–135. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00987083
- Reuss-Ianni, E. (1983). Two cultures of policing. Transaction.
- Rossler, M. T., Rabe-Hemp, C. E., Peuterbaugh, M., & Scheer, C. (2020). Influence of gender on perceptions of barriers to a police patrol career. Police Quarterly, 23(3), 368–395. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611120907870
- Ryan, M. K., & Haslam, S. A. (2005). The glass cliff: Evidence that women are over-represented in precarious leadership positions. British Journal of Management, 16(2), 81–90. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8551.2005.00433.x
- Schuck, A. M. (2014). Gender differences in policing: Testing hypotheses from the performance and disruption perspectives. Feminist Criminology, 9(2), 160–185. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557085113520033
- Schuck, A. M., & Rabe-Hemp, C. (2005). Women police: The use of force by and against female officers. Women & Criminal Justice, 16(4), 91–117. https://doi.org/10.1300/J012v16n04_05
- Scott, H. (2003). Stranger danger: Explaining women’s fear of crime. Western Criminology Review, 4(3), 203–214.
- Shelley, T. O., Morabito, M. S., & Tobin-Gurley, J. (2011). Gendered institutions and gender roles: Understanding the experiences of women in policing. Criminal Justice Studies, 24(4), 351–367. https://doi.org/10.1080/1478601X.2011.625698
- Shoub, K., Stauffer, K. E., & Song, M. (2021). Do female officers police differently? Evidence from traffic stops. American Journal of Political Science, 65(3), 755–769. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12618
- Sierra‐Arévalo, M. (2021). American policing and the danger imperative. Law & Society Review, 55(1), 70–103. https://doi.org/10.1111/lasr.12526
- Silvestri, M. (2017). Police culture and gender: Revisiting the ‘cult of masculinity. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 11(3), 289–300. https://doi.org/10.1093/police/paw052
- Skolnick, J. H. (1966). Justice without trial: Law enforcement in democratic society. Macmillan Publishers.
- Stanko, E. A. (1993). The case of fearful women: Gender, personal safety and fear of crime. Women & Criminal Justice, 4(1), 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1300/J012v04n01_06
- Stoll, L. C., Lilley, T. G., & Pinter, K. (2017). Gender-blind sexism and rape myth acceptance. Violence Against Women, 23(1), 28–45. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801216636239
- Taylor, T., Buck, A., Bloch, K. R., & Turgeon, B. (2019). Gender composition and share of management: Tipping points in US workplaces, 1980-2005. The Social Science Journal, 56(1), 48–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2018.07.005
- Terrill, W., & Mastrofski, S. D. (2002). Situational and officer-based determinants of police coercion. Justice Quarterly, 19(2), 215–248. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418820200095221
- Todak, N. (2017). The decision to become a police officer in a legitimacy crisis. Women & Criminal Justice, 27(4), 250–270. https://doi.org/10.1080/08974454.2016.1256804
- Van Maanen, J. (1974). Working the street: A developmental view of police behavior. In H. Jacob (Ed.), The potential for reform of criminal justice (pp. 83–128). Sage.
- Warr, M. (1984). Fear of victimization: Why are women and the elderly more afraid? Social Science Quarterly, 65, 681–702.
- Westley, W. A. (1970). Violence and the police: A sociological study of law, custom, and morality (Vol. 28). MIT press.
- White, M. D., Mora, V., & Orosco, C. (2021). Exploring variation in police perceptions of de-escalation: Do officer characteristics matter? Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 15(2), 727–740. https://doi.org/10.1093/police/paz062