Statistics, ethics, and research: An agenda for education and reform

References

• Abbott , A. 1999 . Science comes to terms with the lessons of fraud . Nature , 398 : 13 – 17 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Statistical Association . 1999 . Ethical Guidelines for Statistical Practice , Alexandria, VA : American Statistical Association .
   Google Scholar
• Armstrong , J. 1997 . Peer review for journals: evidence of quality control, fairness, and innovation . Science and Engineering Ethics , 3 : 63 – 84 .
   Google Scholar
• Babbage , C. 1970 . Reflections on the Decline of Science in England , New York Augustus Kelley .
   Google Scholar
• Bailar , J. 1986 . Science, statistics, deception . Annals of Internal Medicine , 104 : 259 – 60 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailar , J. 1995 . The practice of meta‐analysis . Journal of Clinical Epidemiology , 48 : 149 – 57 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baltimore , D. 1988 . Quoted in Culliton B. 1988. A bitter battle over error . Science , 240 : 1720
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bok , S. 1982 . Lying , New York : Pantheon Books .
   Google Scholar
• Callaham , M. 1998 . Reliability of editors’ subjective quality ratings of peer reviews of manuscripts . Journal of the American Medical Association , 280 : 229 – 31 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chubin , D. and Hackett , E. 1990 . Peerless Science , Albany, NY : S.U.N.Y. Press .
   Google Scholar
• Commission on Research Integrity . 1995 . Integrity and Misconduct in Research , Washington : Public Health Service .
   Google Scholar
• Davis , M. 1999 . Rhetoric, technical writing, and ethics . Science and Engineering Ethics , 5 : 463 – 483 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DHHS . 1989 . Responsibilities of the PHS awardee and applicant institutions for dealing with and reporting possible misconduct in science . Final Rule. Federal Register , 56 : 32446 – 32451 .
   Google Scholar
• DeMets , D. 1999 . Statistics and ethics in medical research . Science and Engineering Ethics , 5 : 97 – 117 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Easterbrook , P. 1991 . Publication bias in clinical research . Lancet , 337 : 867 – 72 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franklin , A. 1981 . Millikan's published and unpublished data on oil drops . Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences , 11 : 185 – 201 .
   Google Scholar
• Freedman , B. and Shapiro , S. 1994 . Ethics and statistics in clinical research: towards a more comprehensive examination . Journal of Statistical Planning and Inference , 42 (1–2) : 223 – 40 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freiman , J. The importance of beta, the type II error and sample size in the design and interpretation of the randomized control trial: survey of 71 “negative”; trials . New England Journal of Medicine , 299 690 – 94 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friedberg , B. 1999 . Evaluation of conflict of interest in economic analyses of new drugs used in oncology . Journal of the American Medical Association , 282 : 1453 – 57 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friedly , J. 1997 . ORI's self‐assessment: a batting average of .920? . Science , 275 : 1255
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giere , R. 1991 . Understanding Scientific Reasoning, , 3rd edition. , Chicago : Holt, Rine‐ hart, and Winston .
   Google Scholar
• Glick , J. 1989 . “ On the cost effectiveness of data auditing ” . In Principles of Research Data Audit , Edited by: Shamoo , A. 111 – 20 . New York : Gordon and Breach .
   Google Scholar
• Glick , J. and Shamoo , A. 1991 . Auditing biochemical research data: a case study . Accountability in Research , 1 : 223 – 43 .
   Google Scholar
• Glick , J. and Shamoo , A. 1993 . A call for the development of “good research practices”; (GPR) guidelines . Accountability in Research , 2 : 231 – 35 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gould , S. 1981 . The Mismeasure of Man , New York : WW Noreton .
   Google Scholar
• Grinnell , F. 1992 . The Scientific Attitude, , 2nd ed. , New York : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Grinnell , F. 1999 . Ambiguity, trust, and the responsible conduct of research . Science and Engineering Ethics , 5 : 205 – 14 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guston , D. 1999 . Changing explanatory frameworks in the U.S. Government's attempt to define research misconduct . Science and Engineering Ethics , 5 : 137 – 54 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hawkins , B. 1999 . More haste, less science? (letter) . Nature , 400 : 498
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hempel , C. 1966 . Philosophy of Natural Science , Englewood Cliffs, NJ : Prentice‐Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Hollander , R. 1995 . Why teach ethics in science and engineering? . Science and Engineering Ethics , 1 : 83 – 87 .
   Google Scholar
• Holton , G. 1978 . Subelectrons, presuppositions, and the Millikan‐Ehrenhaft dispute . Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences , 9 : 166 – 224 .
   Google Scholar
• Howson , C. and Urbach , P. 1989 . Scientific Reasoning , La Salle, IL : Open Court .
   Google Scholar
• Huff , D. 1954 . How to Lie with Statistics , New York : WW Norton .
   Google Scholar
• Hutton , J. 1996 . The ethics of randomized controlled trials: a matter of statistical belief? . Health Care Analysis , 4 : 95 – 102 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ioannidis , J. 1998 . Effect of the statistical significance of results on the time to completion and publication of randomized efficacy trials . Journal of the American Medical Association , 279 : 281 – 86 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaier , J. 1999 . A misconduct definition that finally sticks . Science , 286 : 391
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kestenbaum , D. 1998 . Supreme Court gets lesson in enumeration . Science , 282 1969
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kevles , D. 1998 . The Baltimore Case , New York : WW Norton .
   Google Scholar
• Kiang , N. 1995 . How are scientific corrections made? . Science and Engineering Ethics , 1 : 347 – 56 .
   Google Scholar
• Kirk , R. 1995 . Experimental Design, , 3rd edition , New York : Brooks/Cole .
   Google Scholar
• Kitcher , P. 1994 . The Advancement of Knowledge , New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Krimsky , S. 1996 . Financial interests of authors in scientific journals: a pilot study of 14 publications . Science and Engineering Ethics , 4 : 395 – 410 .
   Google Scholar
• Krimsky , S. and Rothenberg , N. 1998 . Financial interest and its disclosure in scientific publications . Journal of the American Medical Association , 280 : 225 – 6 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LaFollette , M. 1992 . Stealing into Print , Berkeley : University of California Press .
   Google Scholar
• Laudan , L. 1977 . Progress and Its Problems , Berkeley : University of California Press .
   Google Scholar
• Longino , H. 1990 . Science as Social Knowledge , Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Macrina , F. 1995 . Scientific Integrity , Washington : American Society for Microbiology Press .
   Google Scholar
• Malakoff , D. 1999 . Bayes offers a new way to make sense of numbers . Science , 286 : 1460 – 64 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Misakian , A. and Bero , L. 1998 . Publication bias and research on passive smoking: comparison of published and unpublished studies . Journal of the American Medical Association , 280 : 250 – 53 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore , D. and McCabe , G. 1998 . Introduction to the Practice of Statistics, , 3rd ed. , New York : WH Freeman .
   Google Scholar
• NSF . 1991 . Misconduct in science and engineering. Final Rule . Federal Register , 56 : 22286 – 22290 .
   Google Scholar
• Office of Research Integrity . 1999 . Federal policy on research misconduct . Federal Register , 64 ( 198 ) October 14 : 55722 – 55725 . 1999
   Google Scholar
• Panel on Scientific Responsibility and the Conduct of Research . 1992 . Responsible Science: Ensuring the Integrity of the Research Process , vol. 1 , Washington : National Academy Press .
   Google Scholar
• Popper , K. 1959 . The Logic of Scientific Discovery , London : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Rennie , D. 1999 . Fair conduct and fair reporting of clinical trials . Journal of the American Medical Association , 282 : 1766 – 68 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Resnik , D. 1998a . The Ethics of Science , New York : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Resnik , D. 1998b . Conflicts of interest in science . Perspectives on Science , 6 (4) : 381 – 408 .
   Google Scholar
• Simes , R. 1986 . Publication bias: the case for an international registry of clinical trials . Journal of Clinical Oncology , 4 : 1529 – 1541 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shrader‐Frechette , K. 1994 . Ethics of Scientific Research , Lanham, MD : Rowman and Littlefield .
   Google Scholar
• Steele , F. 1996 . Clearing of researcher in Baltimore affair boosts demand for reform . Nature , 381 : 719 – 20 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stem , J. and Simes , R. 1997 . Publication bias: evidence of delayed publication in a cohort study of clinical research projects . British Medical Journal , 315 : 640 – 45 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomsen , M. and Resnik , D. 1995 . The effectiveness of erratum in reducing error propagation in physics . Science and Engineering Ethics , 1 : 231 – 240 .
   Google Scholar
• Whitbeck , C. 1995 . Trust and trustworthiness in research . Science and Engineering Ethics , 1 (4) : 403 – 16 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Williams , J. 1997 . Low power, type II errors, and other statistical problems in recent cardiovascular research . American Journal of Physiology of the Heart and Circulation Physiology , 42 : 487 – 93 .
   Google Scholar
• Wright , T. 1998 . Sampling and census 2000: the concepts . American Scientist , 86 (3) : 245 – 253 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tel.: (252) 816–2797. Fax: (252) 816–2319.
   Google Scholar