1,225
Views
67
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
ARTICLES

Concurrent Validity of the Tower Tasks as Measures of Executive Function in Adults: A Meta-Analysis

, &
Pages 62-75 | Published online: 10 Feb 2009

REFERENCES

  • Abrahams , S. , Goldstein , L. H. , Al-Chalabi , A. , Pickering , A. , Morris , R. G. , Passingham , R. E. , Brooks , D. J. , & Leigh , P. N. ( 1997 ). Relation between cognitive dysfunction and pseudobulbar palsy in aymotrophic lateral sclerosis . Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry , 62 , 464 – 472 .
  • Albaili , M. A. ( 1996 ). Inferred hemispheric style and problem-solving performance . Perceptual and Motor Skills , 83 , 427 – 434 .
  • Allain , P. , Etcharry-Bouyx , F. , & LeGall , D. ( 2000 ). A case study of selective impairment of the central executive component of working memory after focal frontal lobe damage . Brain & Cognition , 45 , 21 – 43 .
  • Allain , H. , Lieury , A. , Thomas , V. , Reymann , J. M. , Gandon , J. M. , & Belliard , S. ( 1995 ). Explicit and procedural memory in Parkinson's disease . Biomedicine and Pharmacotherapy , 49 , 179 – 186 .
  • Andreasen , N. C. , Rezai , K. , Alliger , R. , Swayze , V. W. , Flaum , M. , Kirchner , P. , Cohen , G. , & O'Leary , D. S. ( 1992 ). Hypofrontality in neuroleptic-naïve patients and in patients with chronic schizophrenia: Assessment with Xenon 113 single-photon emission computed tomography and the Tower of London . Archives of General Psychiatry , 49 , 943 – 958 .
  • Andrés , P. , & Van der Linden , M. ( 2000 ). Age-related differences in supervisory attention system functions . Journals of Gerontology: Series B , 55B ( 6 ), P373 – P380 .
  • Andrés , P. , & Van der Linden , M. ( 2001 ). Supervisory attention system in patients with focal frontal lesions . Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology , 23 , 225 – 239 .
  • Arnett , P. A. , Rao , S. M. , Grafman , J. , Bernardin , L. , Luchetta , T. , Binder , J. R. , & Lobeck , L. ( 1997 ). Executive functions in multiple sclerosis: An analysis of temporal ordering, semantic encoding, and planning abilities . Neuropsychology , 11 , 535 – 544 .
  • Baker , S. C. , Rogers , R. D. , Owen , A. M. , Frith , C. D. , Dolan , R. J. , Frackowiak , R. S. J. , & Robbins , T. W. ( 1996 ). Neural systems engaged by planning: A PET study of the tower of London task . Neuropsychologia , 34 , 515 – 526 .
  • Barkley , R. A. ( 1997 ). Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: Constructing a unified theory of ADHD . Psychological Bulletin , 121 , 65 – 94 .
  • Bartok , J. A. , Martin , E. M. , Pitrak , D. L. , Novak , R. M. , Pursell , K. J. , Mullane , K. M. , & Harrow , M. ( 1997 ). Working memory deficits in HIV-seropositive drug users . Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , 3 , 451 – 456 .
  • Bechara , A. , Dolan , S. , Denburg , N. , Hindes , A. , Anderson , S. W. , & Nathan , P. E. ( 2001 ). Decision-making deficits, linked to a dysfunctional ventromedial prefrontal cortex, revealed in alcohol and stimulant abusers . Neuropsychologia , 39 , 376 – 389 .
  • Brennan , M. , Welsh , M. C. , & Fisher , C. B. ( 1997 ). Aging and executive function skills: An examination of a community-dwelling older adult population . Perceptual and Motor Skills , 84 , 1187 – 1197 .
  • Brosnan , M. , Demetre , J. , Hamill , S. , Robson , K. , Brockway , H. , & Cody , G. ( 2002 ). Executive functioning in adults and children with developmental dyslexia . Neuropsychologia , 40 , 2144 – 2155 .
  • Bustini , M. , Stratta , P. , Daneluzzo , E. , Pollice , R. , Prosperini , P. , & Rossi , A. ( 1999 ). Tower of Hanoi and WCST performance in schizophrenia: Problem-solving capacity and clinical correlates . Journal of Psychiatric Research , 33 , 285 – 290 .
  • Carlin , D. , Bonerba , J. , Phipps , M. , Alexander , G. , Shapiro , M. , & Grafman , J. ( 2000 ). Planning impairments in frontal lobe dementia and frontal lobe lesions . Neuropsychologia , 38 , 655 – 665 .
  • Cavedini , P. , Cisima , M. , Riboldi , G. , D'Annucci , A. , & Bellodi , L. ( 2001 ). A neuropsychological study of dissociation in cortical and subcortical functioning in obsessive-compulsive disorder by Tower of Hanoi task . Brain and Cognition , 46 , 357 – 363 .
  • Clark , L. , Iversen , S. D. , & Goodwin , G. M. ( 2001 ). A neuropsychological investigation of prefrontal cortex involvement in acute mania . American Journal of Psychiatry , 158 , 1605 – 1611 .
  • Cockburn , J. ( 1995 ). Performance on the Tower of London test after severe head injury . Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , 1 , 537 – 544 .
  • Cohen , G. N. , Bronson , M. B. , & Casey , M. B. ( 1995 ). Planning as a factor in school achievement . Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology , 16 , 405 – 428 .
  • Dagher , A. , Owen , A. M. , Boecker , H. , & Brooks , D. J. ( 1999 ). Mapping the network for planning: A correlational PET activation study with the Tower of London task . Brain , 122 , 1973 – 1987 .
  • Daum , I. , Ackermann , H. , Schugens , M. M. , Reimold , C. , Dichgans , J. , & Birbaumer , N. ( 1993 ). The cerebellum and cognitive functions in humans . Behavioral Neuroscience , 107 , 411 – 419 .
  • Diforio , D. , Walker , E. F. , & Kestler , L. P. ( 2000 ). Executive functions in adolescents with schizotypal personality disorder . Schizophrenia Research , 42 , 125 – 134 .
  • Duncan , J. , Burgess , P. , & Emslie , H. ( 1995 ). Fluid intelligence after frontal lobe lesions . Neuropsychologia , 33 , 261 – 268 .
  • Elliott , R. , Baker , S. C. , Rogers , R. D. , O'Leary , D. A. , Paykel , E. S. , Frith , C. D. , Dolan , R. J. , & Sahakian , B. J. ( 1997 ). Prefrontal dysfunction in depressed patients performing a complex planning task: A study using positron emission tomography . Psychological Medicine , 27 , 931 – 942 .
  • Foong , J. , Rozewicz , L. , Davie , C. A. , Thompson , A. J. , Miller , D. H. , & Ron , M. A. ( 1999 ). Correlates of executive function in multiple sclerosis: The use of magnetic resonance spectroscopy as an index of focal pathology . Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences , 11 ( 1 ), 45 – 50 .
  • Gilhooly , K. J. , Phillips , L. H. , Wynn , V. , Logie , R. H. , & Della Sala , S. ( 1999 ). Planning processes and age in the five disc Tower of London task . Thinking and Reasoning , 5 , 339 – 361 .
  • Glosser , E. , & Goodglass , H. ( 1990 ). Disorders in executive control among aphasic and other brain damaged patients . Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology , 12 , 485 – 501 .
  • Goel , V. , & Grafman , J. ( 1995 ). Are the frontal lobes implicated in “planning” functions? Interpreting data from the Tower of Hanoi . Neuropsychologia , 33 , 623 – 642 .
  • Goel , V. , Pullara , S. D. , & Grafman , J. ( 2001 ). A computational model of frontal lobe dysfunction: Working memory and the Tower of Hanoi task . Cognitive Science , 25 , 287 – 313 .
  • Goldberg , T. W. , Saint-Cyr , J. A. , & Weinberger , D. R. ( 1990 ). Assessment of procedural learning and problem solving in schizophrenic patients by Tower of Hanoi type tasks . Journal of Neuropsychiatry , 2 , 165 – 173 .
  • Hanes , K. R. , Andrewes , D. G. , Smith , D. J. , & Pantelis , C. ( 1996 ). A brief assessment of executive control dysfunction: Discriminant validity and homogeneity of planning, set shift, and fluency measures . Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology , 11 , 185 – 191 .
  • Henry , J. C. , van Amelsvoort , T. , Morris , R. G. , Owen , M. J. , Murphy , D. G. M. , & Murphy , K. C. ( 2002 ). An investigation of the neuropsychological profile in adults with velo-cardio-facial syndrome (VCFS) . Neuropsychologia , 40 , 471 – 478 .
  • Hernandez , M. T. , Sauerwein , H. C. , Jambaqué , I. , De Guise , E. , Lussier , F. , Lortie , A. , Dulac , O. , & Lassonde , M. ( 2002 ). Deficits in executive functions and motor coordination in children with frontal lobe epilepsy . Neuropsychologia , 40 , 384 – 400 .
  • Humes , G. E. , Welsh , M. C. , Retzlaff , P. , & Cookson , N. ( 1997 ). Towers of Hanoi and London: Reliability and validity of two executive function tasks . Assessment , 4 , 249 – 257 .
  • Joyce , E. M. , & Robbins , T. W. ( 1991 ). Frontal lobe function in Korsakoff and non-Korsakoff alcoholics: Planning and spatial working memory . Neuropsychologia , 29 , 709 – 723 .
  • Krabbendam , L. , de Vugt , M. E. , Derix , M. M. A. , & Jolles , J. ( 1999 ). The behavioural assessment of the dysexecutive syndrome as a tool to assess executive functions in schizophrenia . The Clinical Neuropsychologist , 13 , 370 – 375 .
  • Krikorian , R. , Bartok , J. , & Gay , N. ( 1994 ). Tower of London procedure: A standard method and developmental data . Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology , 16 , 840 – 850 .
  • Lange , K. W. , Robbins , T. W. , Marsden , C. D. , James , M. , Owen , A. M. , & Paul , G. M. ( 1992 ). L-dopa withdrawal in Parkinson's disease selectively impairs cognitive performance in tests sensitive to frontal lobe dysfunction . Psychopharmacology , 107 , 394 – 404 .
  • Lange , K. W. , Sahakian , B. J. , Quinn , N. P. , Marsden , C. D. , & Robbins , T. W. ( 1995 ). Comparison of executive and visuospatial memory function in Huntington's disease and dementia of Alzheimer type matched for degree of dementia . Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry , 58 , 598 – 606 .
  • Leon-Carrion , J. , Alarcon , J. C. , Revuelta , M. , Murillo-Cabezas , F. , Dominguez-Roldan , J. M. , Dominguez-Morales , M. R. , Machuca-Murga , E. , & Forastero , P. ( 1998 ). Executive functioning outcome in patients after traumatic brain injury . The International Journal of Neuroscience , 94 , 75 – 83 .
  • Leon-Carrion , J. , Morales , M. , Forastero , P. , Dominguez-Morales , M. R. , Murillo , F. , Jimenez-Baco , R. , & Gordon , P. ( 1991 ). The computerized tower of Hanoi: A new form of administration and suggestions for interpretation . Perceptual and Motor Skills , 73 , 63 – 66 .
  • Levin , H. S. , Culhane , K. A. , Hartmann , J. , Evankovich , K. , Mattson , A. J. , Harward , J. , Ringholz , G. , Ewing-Cobbs , L. , & Fletcher , J. M. ( 1991 ). Developmental changes in performance on tests of purported frontal lobe functioning . Developmental Neuropsychology , 7 , 377 – 395 .
  • Levin , H. S. , Song , J. , Scheibel , R. S. , Fletcher , J. M. , Harward , H. , Lilly , M. , & Goldstein , F. (1997). Concept formation and problem-solving following closed head injury in children. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , 3, 598–607.
  • Lezak , M. D. ( 1995 ). Neuropsychological assessment . New York : Oxford University Press .
  • Lipsey , M. W. , & Wilson , D. B. ( 2001 ). Practical meta-analysis . Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage .
  • Luciana , M. , & Nelson , C. A. ( 1998 ). The functional emergence of prefrontally guided working memory system in four- to eight-year-old children . Neuropsychologia , 36 , 273 – 293 .
  • Luckner , J. ( 1992 ). Problem-solving: A comparison of hearing impaired and hearing individuals . Journal of Deafness and Rehabilitation Association , 25 ( 4 ), 21 – 27 .
  • Luria , A. R. ( 1966 ). Higher cortical functions in man . New York : Basic Books .
  • Marczewski , P. , Van der Linden , M. , & Laroi , F. ( 2001 ). Futher investigation of the supervisory attentional system in schizophrenia: Planning, inhibition, and rule abstraction . Cognitive Neuropsychiatry , 6 , 175 – 192 .
  • Mataix-Cols , D. , Junque , C. , Sanchez-Turet , M. , Vallejo , J. , Verger , K. , & Barrios , M. ( 1999 ). Neuropsychological functioning in a subclinical obsessive-compulsive sample . Biological Psychiatry , 45 , 898 – 904 .
  • Morice , R. , & Delahunty , A. ( 1996 ). Frontal/executive impairments in schizophrenia . Schizophrenia Bulletin , 22 , 125 – 137 .
  • Morris , R. G. , Ahmed , S. , Syed , G. M. , & Toone , G. K. ( 1993 ). Neural correlates of planning ability: Frontal lobe activation during the Tower of London test . Neuropsychologia , 31 , 1367 – 1378 .
  • Morris , R. G. , Miotto , E. C. , Feigenbaum , J. D. , Bullock , P. , & Polkey , C. E. ( 1997 ). The effect of goal-subgoal conflict on planning ability after frontal- and temporal-lobe lesions in humans . Neuropsychologia , 35 , 1147 – 1157 .
  • Morris , R. G. , Rushe , T. , Woodruffe , P. W. , & Murray , R. M. ( 1995 ). Problem solving in schizophrenia: A specific deficit in planning ability . Schizophrenia Research , 14 , 235 – 246 .
  • Murphy , P. ( 2002 ). Cognitive functioning in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder . Journal of Attention Disorders , 5 , 203 – 209 .
  • Numminen , H. , Lehto , J. E. , & Ruoppila , I. ( 2001 ). Tower of Hanoi and working memory in adult persons with intellectual disability . Research in Developmental Disabilities , 22 , 373 – 387 .
  • Owen , A. M. , Downes , J. J. , Sahakian , B. J. , Polkey , C. S. , & Robbins , T. W. ( 1990 ). Planning and spatial working memory following frontal lobe lesions in man . Neuropsychologia , 28 , 1021 – 1034 .
  • Owen , A. M. , Doyon , J. , Petrides , M. , & Evans , A. C. ( 1996 ). Planning and spatial working memory: A positron emission tomography study in humans . European Journal of Neuroscience , 8 , 353 – 364 .
  • Owen , A. M. , James , M. , Leigh , P. N. , Summers , B. A. , Marsden , C. D. , Quinn , N. P. , Lange , K. W. , & Robbins , T. W. ( 1992 ). Fronto-striatal cognitive deficits at different stages of Parkinson's disease . Brain: A Journal of Neurology , 115 , 1727 – 1751 .
  • Pantelis , C. , Barnes , T. R. E. , Nelson , H. E. , Tanner , S. , Weatherley , L. , Owen , A. M. , & Robbins , T. W. ( 1997 ). Frontal striatal cognitive deficits in patients with chronic schizophrenia . Brain , 120 , 1823 – 1843 .
  • Peretti , C. S. , Danion , J. M. , Gierski , F. , & Grange , D. ( 2002 ). Cognitive skill learning and aging: A component process analysis . Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology , 17 , 445 – 459 .
  • Phillips , L. H. , Wynn , V. , Gilhooly , K. J. , Della Sala , S. , & Logie , R. H. ( 1999 ). The role of memory in the Tower of London task . Memory , 7 , 209 – 231 .
  • Purcell , R. , Maruff , P. , Kyrios , M. , & Pantelis , C. ( 1997 ). Neuropsychological function in young patients with unipolar major depression . Psychological Medicine , 27 , 1277 – 1285 .
  • Purcell , R. , Maruff , P. , Kyrios , M. , & Pantelis , C. ( 1998 ). Cognitive deficits in obsessive-compulsive disorder on tests of fronto-striatal function . Biological Psychiatry , 43 , 348 – 357 .
  • Rainville , C. , Amieva , H. , Lafont , S. , Dartigues , J.-F. , Orgogozo , J.-M. , & Fabrigoule , C. ( 2002 ). Executive function deficits in patients with dementia of the Alzheimer's type: A study with a Tower of London task . Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology , 17 , 513 – 530 .
  • Rezai , K. , Andreasen , N. C. , Alliger , R. , Cohen , G. , Swayze , V. , & O'Leary , D. S. ( 1993 ). The neuropsychology of the prefrontal cortex . Archives of Neurology , 50 , 636 – 642 .
  • Riccio , C. A. , Wolfe , M. E. , Romine , C. , Davis , B. , & Sullivan , J. R. ( 2004 ). The Tower of London and neuropsychological assessment of ADHD in adults . Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology , 19 , 66 – 671 .
  • Robbins , T. W. , James , M. , Lange , K. W. , Owen , A. M. , Quinn , N. P. , & Marsden , C. D. ( 1992 ). Cognitive performance in multiple system atrophy . Brain: A Journal of Neurology , 115 , 271 – 291 .
  • Robbins , T. W. , James , M. , Owen , A. M. , Lange , K. W. , Lees , A. J. , Leigh , P. N. , Marsden , C. D. , Quinn , M. P. , & Summers , B. A. ( 1994 ). Cognitive deficits in progressive supranuclear palsy, Parkinson's disease, and multiple system atrophy in tests sensitive to frontal lobe dysfunction . Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry , 57 , 79 – 88 .
  • Rönnlund , M. , Lövdén , M. , & Nilsson , L.-G. ( 2001 ). Adult age differences in Tower of Hanoi performance: Influence from demographic and cognitive variables . Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition , 8 , 269 – 283 .
  • Rosenthal , R. , & DiMatteo , M. R. ( 2001 ). Meta-analysis: Recent developments in quantitative methods for research reviews . Annual Reviews in Psychology , 52 , 59 – 82 .
  • Rousseaux , M. , Godefroy , O. , Cabaret , M. , & Bernati , T. ( 1996 ). Syndrome dysexecutif et troubles du controle moteur dans les lesions prefrontales medio-baslaes et cigulaires [Dysexecutive syndrome and disorders of motor control in prefrontal mediobasal and cingulate lesions] . Revue Neurologique , 152 , 517 – 527 .
  • Rowe , J. B. , Owen , A. M. , Johnsrude , I. S. , & Passingham , R. E. ( 2001 ). Imaging the mental components of a planning task . Neuropsychologia , 39 , 315 – 327 .
  • Rushe , T. M. , Morris , R. G. , Miotto , E. C. , Feigenbaum , J. D. , Woodruff , P. W. R. , & Murray , R. M. ( 1999 ). Problem-solving and spatial working memory in patients with schizophrenia and with focal frontal and temporal lobe lesions . Schizophrenia Research , 37 , 21 – 33 .
  • Saint-Cyr , J. A. , Taylor , A. E. , & Lang , A. E. ( 1990 ). Memory and learning in early Parkinson's disease: Evidence for a “frontal lobe syndrome” . Brain and Cognition , 13 , 211 – 232 .
  • Schmidtke , K. , Handschu , R. , & Vollmer , H. ( 1996 ). Cognitive procedural learning in amnesia . Brain and Cognition , 32 , 441 – 467 .
  • Schnirman , G. M. , Welsh , M. C. , & Retzlaff , P. D. ( 1998 ). Development of the Tower of London–Revised . Assessment , 5 , 355 – 360 .
  • Schuepbach , D. , Merlo , M. C. G. , Goenner , F. , Staikov , I. , Mattle , H. P. , Dierks , T. , & Brenner , H. D. ( 2002 ). Cerebral hemodynamic response induced by the Tower of Hanoi puzzle and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test . Neuropsychologia , 40 , 39 – 53 .
  • Shallice , T. ( 1982 ). Specific impairments of planning . Philosophical Transcripts of the Royal Society of London B , 298 , 199 – 209 .
  • Simon , H. A. ( 1975 ). The functional equivalence of problem-solving skills . Cognitive Psychology , 7 , 268 – 288 .
  • Spitz , H. H. , Minsky , S. K. , & Bessellieu , C. L. ( 1985 ). Influence of planning time and first move strategy on Tower of Hanoi problem-solving performance of mentally retarded young adults and nonretarded children . American Journal of Mental Deficiency , 90 , 46 – 56 .
  • Suhr , J. A. ( 1997 ). Executive functioning in deficits in hypothetically psychosis-prone college students . Schizophrenia Research , 27 , 29 – 35 .
  • Trestman , R. L. , Keefe , R. S. , Mitropoulou , V. , Harvey , P. D. , deVegvar , M. L. , Lees-Roitman , S. , Davidson , M. , Aronson , A. , Silverman , J. , & Siever , L. V. (1995). Cognitive function and biological correlates of cognitive performance in schizoptypal personality disorder. Psychiatry Research , 59, 127–136.
  • Urbina , S. ( 2004 ). Essentials of psychological testing . Hoboken , NJ : Wiley .
  • Vakil , E. , & Agmon-Ashkenazi , D. ( 1997 ). Baseline performance and learning rate of procedural and declarative memory tasks: Younger versus older adults . The Journal of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences , 52 , 229 – 234 .
  • Vakil , E. , Hoffman , Y. , & Myzliek , D. ( 1998 ). Active versus passive procedural learning in older and younger adults . Neuropsychological Rehabilitation , 8 , 31 – 41 .
  • Vakil , E. , Gordon , Y. , Birnstok , S. , Aberbuch , S. , & Groswasser , Z. ( 2001 ). Declarative and nondeclarative sequence learning tasks: Closed-head injured patients versus control participants . Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology , 23 , 207 – 214 .
  • Vakil , E. , Shelef-Reshef , E. , & Levy-Shiff , R. ( 1997 ). Procedural and declarative memory processes: Individuals with and without mental retardation . American Journal on Mental Retardation , 102 , 147 – 160 .
  • Veale , D. M. , Sahakian , B. J. , Owen , A. M. , & Marks , I. M. ( 1996 ). Specific cognitive deficits in tests sensitive to frontal lobe dysfunction in obsessive-compulsive disorder . Psychological Medicine , 26 , 1261 – 1269 .
  • Watkins , L. H. A. , Rogers , R. D. , Lawrence , A. D. , Sahakian , B. J. , Rosser , A. E. , & Robbins , T. W. ( 2000 ). Impaired planning but intact decision making in early Huntington's disease: Implications for specific fronto-striatal pathology . Neuropsychologia , 38 , 1112 – 1125 .
  • Watts , F. N. , MacLeod , A. K. , & Morris , L. ( 1988 ). Associations between phenomenal and objective aspects of concentration problems in depressed patients . British Journal of Psychology , 79 , 241 – 250 .
  • Welsh , M. C. ( 1991 ). Rule-guided behavior and self-monitoring on the Tower of Hanoi disk-transfer task . Cognitive Development , 62 , 59 – 67 .
  • Welsh , M. C. , Cicerello , A. , Cuneo , K. , & Brennan , M. ( 1995 ). Error and temporal patterns in Tower of Hanoi performance: Cognitive mechanisms and individual differences . Journal of General Psychology , 122 , 69 – 81 .
  • Welsh , M. C. , & Huizinga , M. ( 2001 ). The development and preliminary validation of the Tower of Hanoi-Revised . Assessment , 8 , 167 – 176 .
  • Welsh , M. C. , Pennington , B. F. , & Groisser , D. B. ( 1991 ). A normative developmental study of executive function: A window on prefrontal function in children . Developmental Neuropsychology , 7 , 131 – 149 .
  • Welsh , M. C. , Pennington , B. F. , Ozonoff , S. , Rouse , B. , & McCabe , E. R. B. ( 1990 ). Neuropsychology of early-treated phenylketonuria: Specific executive function deficits . Child Development , 61 , 1697 – 1713 .
  • Zakzanis , K. K. ( 2001 ). Statistics to tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth: Formulae, illustrative numerical examples, and heuristic interpretation of effect size analyses for neuropsychological researchers . Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology , 16 , 653 – 667 .
  • Zelazo , P. D. , Carter , A. , Reznick , J. S. , & Frye , D. ( 1997 ). Early development of executive function: A problem-solving framework . Review of General Psychology , 1 , 198 – 226 .
  • Note: This paper was accepted under the editorship of Cecil R. Reynolds.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.