A human pericardium biopolymeric scaffold for autologous heart valve tissue engineering: cellular and extracellular matrix structure and biomechanical properties in comparison with a normal aortic heart valve

References

• Yacoub MH, Takkenberg JJ. Will heart valve tissue engineering change the world? Nat Clin Pract Cardiovasc Med. 2005;2(2):60–61.10.1038/ncpcardio0112
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brown JM, O’Brien SM, Wu C, et al. Isolated aortic valve replacement in North America comprising 108,687 patients in 10 years: changes in risks, valve types, and outcomes in the society of thoracic surgeons national database. J Thoracic Cardiovasc Surg. 2009;137:82–90.10.1016/j.jtcvs.2008.08.015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheung DY, Duan B, Butcher JT. Current progress in tissue engineering of heart valves: multiscale problems, multiscale solutions. Expert Opin Biol Ther. 2015;15(8):1155–1172.10.1517/14712598.2015.1051527
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Welke KF, Wu Y, Grunkemeier GL, et al. Long-term results after Carpentier-Edwards pericardial aortic valve implantation, with attention to the impact of age. Heart Surg Forum. 2011;14(3):E160–E165.10.1532/HSF98.20101140
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kallio M, Pihkala J, Sairanen H, et al. Long-term results of the Ross procedure in a population-based follow-up. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2015;47(5):e164–e170.10.1093/ejcts/ezv004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rieder E, Steinacher-Nigisch A, Weigel G. Human immune-cell response towards diverse xenogeneic and allogeneic decellularized biomaterials. Int J Surg. 2016;36(Pt A):347–351. 10.1016/j.ijsu.2016.06.042
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chester AH, Taylor PM. Molecular and functional characteristics of heart-valve interstitial cells. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2007;362(1484):1437–1443.10.1098/rstb.2007.2126
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodriguez ER, Tan CD. Structure and anatomy of the human pericardium. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2017;59(4):327–340.10.1016/j.pcad.2016.12.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lausberg HF, Aicher D, Langer F, et al. Aortic valve repair with autologous pericardial patch. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2006;2:244–249.10.1016/j.ejcts.2006.04.031
   Google Scholar
• Ozaki S, Kawase I, Yamashita H, et al. Aortic valve reconstruction using autologous pericardium for patients aged less than 60 years. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2014;148(3):934–938.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Imaishi Y, Lodowski KH, Koutalos Y. Two-photon microscopy: shedding light on the chemistry of vision. Biochemistry. 2007;46(34):9674–9684.10.1021/bi701055 g
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campagnola PJ, Millard AC, Terasaki M, et al. Three-dimensional high-resolution second-harmonic generation imaging of endogenous structural proteins in biological tissues. Biophys J. 2002;82(Pt 1):493–508.10.1016/S0006-3495(02)75414-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schneider CA, Rasband WS, Eliceiri KW. NIH Image to ImageJ: 25 years of image analysis. Nat Methods. 2012;9(7):671–675.10.1038/nmeth.2089
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caetano GF, Fronza M, Leite MN, et al. Comparison of collagen content in skin wounds evaluated by biochemical assay and by computer-aided histomorphometric analysis. Pharm Biol. 2016;54(11):2555–2559.10.3109/13880209.2016.1170861
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fonseca C, Taatjes DJ, Callas P, et al. The effects of aging on the intimal region of the human saphenous vein: insights from multimodal microscopy and quantitative image analysis. Histochem Cell Biol. 2012;138(3):435–445.10.1007/s00418-012-0966-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prasad K, Prabhu GK. Image analysis tools for evaluation of microscopic views of immunohistochemically stained specimen in medical research-a review. J Med Syst. 2012;36(4):2621–2631.10.1007/s10916-011-9737-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frisch-Fay R. Flexible bars. Washington (DC): Butterworths; 1962.
   Google Scholar
• Sacks, MS, Merryman, WD, Schmidt, DE On the biomechanics of heart valve function. J. Biomech. 2009;42:1804–1824.10.1016/j.jbiomech.2009.05.015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu AC, Joag VR, Gotlieb AI. The emerging role of valve interstitial cell phenotypes in regulating heart valve pathobiology. Am J Pathol. 2007;171(5):1407–1418.10.2353/ajpath.2007.070251
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor PM, Allen SP, Yacoub MH. Phenotypic and functional characterization of interstitial cells from human heart valves, pericardium and skin. J Heart Valve Dis. 2000;9(1):150–158.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Straka F, Schornik D, Masin J, et al. A new approach to heart valve tissue engineering based on modifying autologous human pericardium by 3D cellular mechanotransduction. J Biomater Tissue Eng. 2017;7:527–543.10.1166/jbt.2017.1598
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bullwinkel J, Baron-Lühr B, Lüdemann A, et al. Ki-67 protein is associated with ribosomal RNA transcription in quiescent and proliferating cells. J Cell Physiol. 2006;206(3):624–635.10.1002/(ISSN)1097-4652
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fleisher B, Clarke C, Ait-Oudhia S. Current advances in biomarkers for targeted therapy in triple-negative breast cancer. Breast Cancer (Dove Med Press). 2016;8:183–197.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Latif N, Sarathchandra P, Taylor PM, et al. Characterization of molecules mediating cell-cell communication in human cardiac valve interstitial cells. Cell Biochem Biophys. 2006;45(3):255–264.10.1385/CBB:45:3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kurpinski K, Chu J, Hashi C, et al. Anisotropic mechanosensing by mesenchymal stem cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006;103(44):16095–16100.10.1073/pnas.0604182103
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schoen FJ. Evolving concepts of cardiac valve dynamics: the continuum of development, functional structure, pathobiology, and tissue engineering. Circulation. 2008;118(18):1864–1880.10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.108.805911
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arjunon S, Rathan S, Jo H, et al. Aortic valve: mechanical environment and mechanobiology. Ann Biomed Eng. 2013;41(7):1331–1346.10.1007/s10439-013-0785-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rabkin-Aikawa E, Farber M, Aikawa M, et al. Dynamic and reversible changes of interstitial cell phenotype during remodeling of cardiac valves. J Heart Valve Dis. 2004;13(5):841–847.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carruthers CA, Alfieri CM, Joyce EM, et al. Gene expression and collagen fiber micromechanical interactions of the semilunar heart valve interstitial cell. Cell Mol Bioeng. 2012;5(3):254–265.10.1007/s12195-012-0230-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reiser K, McCormick RJ, Rucker RB. Enzymatic and nonenzymatic cross-linking of collagen and elastin. FASEB J. 1992;6(7):2439–2449.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Butcher JT, Tressel S, Johnson T, et al. Transcriptional profiles of valvular and vascular endothelial cells reveal phenotypic differences: influence of shear stress. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2006;26(1):69–77.10.1161/01.ATV.0000196624.70507.0d
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mongkoldhumrongkul N, Yacoub MH, Chester AH. Valve endothelial cells – not just any old endothelial cells. Curr Vasc Pharmacol. 2016;14(2):146–154.10.2174/1570161114666151202205504
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chung-Welch N, Patton WF, Yen-Patton GP, et al. Phenotypic comparison between mesothelial and microvascular endothelial cell lineages using conventional endothelial cell markers, cytoskeletal protein markers and in vitro assays of angiogenic potential. Differentiation. 1989;42(1):44–53.10.1111/j.1432-0436.1989.tb00606.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lachaud CC, Rodriguez-Campins B, Hmadcha A, et al. Use of mesothelial cells and biological matrices for tissue engineering of simple epithelium surrogates. Front Bioeng Biotechnol. 2015;3:117.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Li S, Henry JJ. Nonthrombogenic approaches to cardiovascular bioengineering. Annu Rev Biomed Eng. 2011;13:451–475.10.1146/annurev-bioeng-071910-124733
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hristov M, Erl W, Weber PC. Endothelial progenitor cells: mobilization, differentiation, and homing. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2003;23(7):1185–1189.10.1161/01.ATV.0000073832.49290.B5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weber B, Dijkman PE, Scherman J, et al. Off-the-shelf human decellularized tissue-engineered heart valves in a non-human primate model. Biomaterials. 2013;34(30):7269–7280.10.1016/j.biomaterials.2013.04.059
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stokes DJ. Principles and practice of variable pressure/environmental scanning electron microscopy (VP-ESEM). Chichester: Wiley; 2008.10.1002/9780470758731
   Google Scholar
• Rock CA, Han L, Doehring TC. Complex collagen fiber and membrane morphologies of the whole porcine aortic valve. PLoS One. 2014;9(1):e86087.10.1371/journal.pone.0086087
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mega M, Marom G, Halevi R, et al. Imaging analysis of collagen fiber networks in cusps of porcine aortic valves: effect of their local distribution and alignment on valve functionality. Comput Methods Biomech Biomed Engin. 2016;19(9):1002–1008.10.1080/10255842.2015.1088009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor PM. Biological matrices and bionanotechnology. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2007;362(1484):1313–1320.10.1098/rstb.2007.2117
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kurland NE, Drira Z, Yadavalli VK. Measurement of nanomechanical properties of biomolecules using atomic force microscopy. Micron. 2012;43(2–3):116–128.10.1016/j.micron.2011.07.017
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailey AJ, Paul RG, Knott L. Mechanisms of maturation and ageing of collagen. Mech Ageing Dev. 1998;106(1–2):1–56.10.1016/S0047-6374(98)00119-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sacks MS, Smith DB, Hiester ED. The aortic valve microstructure: effects of transvalvular pressure. J Biomed Mater Res. 1998;41(1):131–141.10.1002/(ISSN)1097-4636
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joyce EM, Liao J, Schoen FJ, et al. Functional collagen fiber architecture of the pulmonary heart valve cusp. Ann Thorac Surg. 2009;87(4):1240–1249.10.1016/j.athoracsur.2008.12.049
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ku CH, Johnson PH, Batten P, et al. Collagen synthesis by mesenchymal stem cells and aortic valve interstitial cells in response to mechanical stretch. Cardiovasc Res. 2006;71(3):548–556.10.1016/j.cardiores.2006.03.022
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Provenzano P, Lakes R, Keenan T, et al. Nonlinear ligament viscoelasticity. Ann Biomed Eng. 2001;29(10):908–914.10.1114/1.1408926
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thornton GM, Frank CB, Shrive NG. Ligament creep behavior can be predicted from stress relaxation by incorporating fiber recruitment. J Rheol. 2001;45(2):493–507.10.1122/1.1343877
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stella JA, Sacks MS. On the biaxial mechanical properties of the layers of the aortic valve leaflet. J Biomech Eng. 2007;129:757–766.10.1115/1.2768111
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adler  Y, Charron  P, Imazio  M, et al. ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of pericardial diseases: The Task Force for the Diagnosis and Management of Pericardial Diseases of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) Endorsed by: The European Association for Cardio-Thoracic Surgery (EACTS). Eur Heart J. 2015;36 (42):2921–64.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sacks MS, Yoganathan AP. Heart valve function: a biomechanical perspective. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2007;29;362(1484):1369–1391.10.1098/rstb.2007.2122
   Google Scholar
• Wagenseil JE, Mecham RP. New insights into elastic fiber assembly. Birth Defects Res C Embryo Today. 2007;81(4):229–240.10.1002/bdrc.v81:4
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bax DV, Mahalingam Y, Cain S, et al. Cell adhesion to fibrillin-1: identification of an Arg-Gly-Asp-dependent synergy region and a heparin-binding site that regulates focal adhesion formation. J Cell Sci. 2007;120(Pt 8):1383–1392.10.1242/jcs.003954
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hasan A, Ragaert K, Swieszkowski W, et al. Biomechanical properties of native and tissue engineered heart valve constructs. J Biomech. 2014;47(9):1949–1963.10.1016/j.jbiomech.2013.09.023
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Isenberg BC, Williams C, Tranquillo RT. Small-diameter artificial arteries engineered in vitro. Circ Res. 2006;98:25–35.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tseng H, Grande-Allen KJ. Elastic fibers in the aortic valve spongiosa: a fresh perspective on its structure and role in overall tissue function. Acta Biomater. 2011;7(5):2101–2108.10.1016/j.actbio.2011.01.022
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buchanan RM, Sacks MS. Interlayer micromechanics of the aortic heart valve leaflet. Biomech Model Mechanobiol. 2014;13(4):813–826.10.1007/s10237-013-0536-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prydz K, Dalen KT. Synthesis and sorting of proteoglycans. J Cell Sci. 2000;113(Pt 2):193–205.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lincoln J, Lange AW, Yutzey KE. Hearts and bones: shared regulatory mechanisms in heart valve, cartilage, tendon, and bone development. Dev Biol. 2006;294(2):292–302.10.1016/j.ydbio.2006.03.027
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eckert CE, Fan R, Mikulis B, et al. On the biomechanical role of glycosaminoglycans in the aortic heart valve leaflet. Acta Biomater. 2013;9(1):4653–4660.10.1016/j.actbio.2012.09.031
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee JM, Boughner DR. Mechanical properties of human pericardium. Differences in viscoelastic response when compared with canine pericardium. Circ Res. 1985 Sep;57(3):475–481.10.1161/01.RES.57.3.475
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee MC, Fung YC, Shabetai R, et al. Biaxial mechanical properties of human pericardium and canine comparisons. Am J Physiol. 1987 Jul;253(1 Pt 2):H75–82.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sacks MS, Chuong CJ, More R. Collagen fiber architecture of bovine pericardium. ASAIO J. 1994;40(3):M632–M637.10.1097/00002480-199407000-00075
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tremblay D, Zigras T, Cartier R, et al. A comparison of mechanical properties of materials used in aortic arch reconstruction. Ann Thorac Surg. 2009 Nov;88(5):1484–1491.10.1016/j.athoracsur.2009.07.023
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balguid A, Rubbens MP, Mol A, et al. The role of collagen cross-links in biomechanical behavior of human aortic heart valve leaflets–relevance for tissue engineering. Tissue Eng. 2007;13(7):1501–1511.10.1089/ten.2006.0279
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Christie GW, Barratt-Boyes BG. Mechanical properties of porcine pulmonary valve leaflets: how do they differ from aortic leaflets? Ann Thorac Surg.1995;60(2Suppl):S195–S199. 10.1016/0003-4975(95)00279-T
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kalejs M, Stradins P, Lacis R, et al. St Jude Epic heart valve bioprostheses versus native human and porcine aortic valves – comparison of mechanical properties. Interact Cardiovasc Thorac Surg. 2009;8(5):553–556.10.1510/icvts.2008.196220
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stradins P, Lacis R, Ozolanta I, et al. Comparison of biomechanical and structural properties between human aortic and pulmonary valve. Eur J Cardio-Thorac Surg. 2004;26:634–639.10.1016/j.ejcts.2004.05.043
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anssari-Benam A, Bader DL, Screen HR. A combined experimental and modelling approach to aortic valve viscoelasticity in tensile deformation. J Mater Sci Mater Med. 2011;22(2):253–262.10.1007/s10856-010-4210-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sung HW, Chang Y, Chiu CT, et al. Crosslinking characteristics and mechanical properties of a bovine pericardium fixed with a naturally occurring crosslinking agent. J Biomed Mater Res. 1999;47(2):116–126.10.1002/(ISSN)1097-4636
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zioupos P, Barbenel JC. Mechanics of native bovine pericardium. I. The multiangular behaviour of strength and stiffness of the tissue. Biomaterials. 1994;15(5):366–373.10.1016/0142-9612(94)90249-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aguiari P, Fiorese M, Iop L, et al. Mechanical testing of pericardium for manufacturing prosthetic heart valves. Interact Cardiovasc Thorac Surg. 2016;22(1):72–84.10.1093/icvts/ivv282
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cissell DD, Hu JC, Griffiths LG, et al. Antigen removal for the production of biomechanically functional, xenogeneic tissue grafts. J Biomech. 2014;47(9):1987–1996.10.1016/j.jbiomech.2013.10.041
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balguid A, Driessen NJ, Mol A, et al. Stress related collagen ultrastructure in human aortic valves-implications for tissue engineering. J Biomech. 2008;41(12):2612–2617.10.1016/j.jbiomech.2008.06.031
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Masoumi N, Annabi N, Assmann A, et al. Tri-layered elastomeric scaffolds for engineering heart valve leaflets. Biomaterials. 2014;35(27):7774–7785.10.1016/j.biomaterials.2014.04.039
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merryman WD, EngelmayrGC, Liao, J, et al. Defining biomechanical endpoints for tissue engineered heart valve leaflets from native leaflet properties. Progress Pediatric Cardiol. 2006;21(21):153–160.10.1016/j.ppedcard.2005.11.001
   Google Scholar
• Gloeckner DC, Billiar KL, Sacks MS. Effects of mechanical fatigue on the bending properties of the porcine bioprosthetic heart valve. ASAIO J. 1999;45(1):59–63.10.1097/00002480-199901000-00014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keane TJ, Swinehart IT, Badylak SF. Methods of tissue decellularization used for preparation of biologic scaffolds and in vivo relevance. Methods. 2015;84:25–34.10.1016/j.ymeth.2015.03.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liao J, Joyce EM, Sacks MS. Effects of decellularization on the mechanical and structural properties of the porcine aortic valve leaflet. Biomaterials. 2008;29(8):1065–1074.10.1016/j.biomaterials.2007.11.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keane TJ, Londono R, Turner NJ, et al. Consequences of ineffective decellularization of biologic scaffolds on the host response. Biomaterials. 2012;33(6):1771–1781.10.1016/j.biomaterials.2011.10.054
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bloch O, Golde P, Dohmen PM, et al. Immune response in patients receiving a bioprosthetic heart valve: lack of response with decellularized valves. Tissue Eng Part A. 2011;17(19–20):2399–2405.10.1089/ten.tea.2011.0046
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Böer U, Buettner FFR, Schridde A, et al. Antibody formation towards porcine tissue in patients implanted with crosslinked heart valves is directed to antigenic tissue proteins and αGal epitopes and is reduced in healthy vegetarian subjects. Xenotransplantation. 2017;24(2). doi: 10.1111/xen.12288.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barone A, Benktander J, Teneberg S, et al. Characterization of acid and non-acid glycosphingolipids of porcine heart valve cusps as potential immune targets in biological heart valve grafts. Xenotransplantation. 2014;21(6):510–522.10.1111/xen.2014.21.issue-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reuven EM, Leviatan Ben-Arye S, Marshanski T, et al. Characterization of immunogenic Neu5Gc in bioprosthetic heart valves. Xenotransplantation. 2016;23(5):381–392.10.1111/xen.2016.23.issue-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Voges I, Bräsen JH, Entenmann A, et al. Adverse results of a decellularized tissue-engineered pulmonary valve in humans assessed with magnetic resonance imaging. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2013;44(4):e272–e279.10.1093/ejcts/ezt328
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mirsadraee S, Wilcox HE, Korossis SA, et al. Development and characterization of an acellular human pericardial matrix for tissue engineering. Tissue Eng. 2006;12(4):763–773.10.1089/ten.2006.12.763
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mirsadraee S, Wilcox HE, Watterson KG, et al. Biocompatibility of acellular human pericardium. J Surg Res. 2007;143(2):407–414.10.1016/j.jss.2007.01.026
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vinci MC, Tessitore G, Castiglioni L, et al. Mechanical compliance and immunological compatibility of fixative-free decellularized/cryopreserved human pericardium. PLoS One. 2013;8(5):e64769.10.1371/journal.pone.0064769
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rankin JS, Nöbauer C, Crooke PS, et al. Techniques of autologous pericardial leaflet replacement for aortic valve reconstruction. Ann Thorac Surg. 2014;98(2):743–745.10.1016/j.athoracsur.2013.11.086
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu X, Han L, Song Z, et al. Aortic valve replacement with autologous pericardium: long-term follow-up of 15 patients and in vivo histopathological changes of autologous pericardium. Interact Cardiovasc Thorac Surg. 2013;16(2):123–128.10.1093/icvts/ivs441
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ozaki S, Kawase I, Yamashita H, et al. Aortic valve reconstruction using autologous pericardium for patients aged less than 60 years. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2014;148(3):934–8.10.1016/j.jtcvs.2014.05.041
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jöbsis PD, Ashikaga H, Wen H, et al. The visceral pericardium: macromolecular structure and contribution to passive mechanical properties of the left ventricle. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2007;293(6):H3379–H3387.10.1152/ajpheart.00967.2007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siddiqui RF, Abraham JR, Butany J. Bioprosthetic heart valves: modes of failure. Histopathology. 2009;55(2):135–144.10.1111/his.2009.55.issue-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jamieson WR, Rosado LJ, Munro AI, et al. Carpentier-Edwards standard porcine bioprosthesis: primary failure (structural valve deterioration) by age groups. Ann. Thorac. Surg. 1988;46(2):155–162.10.1016/S0003-4975(10)65888-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong ML, Wong JL, Vapniarsky N, et al. In vivo xenogeneic scaffold fate is determined by residual antigenicity and extracellular matrix preservation. Biomaterials. 2016;92:1–12.10.1016/j.biomaterials.2016.03.024
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar