Using an iterative mixed-methods research design to investigate schools facing exceptionally challenging circumstances within Trinidad and Tobago

References

• Ainscow, M., Dyson, A., Goldrick, S., & West, M. (2012). Making schools effective for all: Rethinking the task. School Leadership & Management, 32, 197–213. doi:10.1080/13632434.2012.669648
   Google Scholar
• Ainscow, M., Muijs, D., & West, M. (2006). Collaboration as a strategy for improving schools in challenging circumstances. Improving Schools, 9, 192–202. doi:10.1177/1365480206069014
   Google Scholar
• Bacchus, M. K. (2008). The education challenges facing small nation states in the increasingly competitive global economy of the twenty-first century. Comparative Education, 44, 127–145. doi:10.1080/03050060802040953
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Badenhorst, J. W., & Koalepe, L. J. (2014). How do we manage? Determinants of effective leadership in high-poverty schools. Journal of Social Sciences, 39, 243–256.
   Google Scholar
• Baye, A., & Monseur, C. (2006, November). Equity of achievement: A matter of education structures? In The second IEA international research conference: Proceedings of the IRC-2006 (Vol. 2, pp. 199–214). Retrieved from http://www.iea.nl/fileadmin/user_upload/Publications/Electronic_versions/IRC2006_Proceedings_Vol2.pdf#page=208
   Google Scholar
• Bazeley, P. (2012). Integrative analysis strategies for mixed data sources. American Behavioural Scientist, 56, 814–828. doi:10.1177/0002764211426330
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boeije, H. (2002). A purposeful approach to the constant comparative method in the analysis of qualitative interviews. Quality & Quantity, 36, 391–409. doi:10.1023/A:1020909529486
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bray, M. (1991). Education in small states: Growth of interest and emergence of a theory. Prospects, 21, 503–516.
   Google Scholar
• Caldwell, B., & Bradley, R. (1984). Manual for the home observation for measurement of the environment. Little Rock, AR: University of Arkansas.
   Google Scholar
• Camburn, E., Rowan, B., & Taylor, J. E. (2003). Distributed leadership in schools: The case of elementary schools adopting comprehensive school reform models. Educational Evaluation & Policy Analysis, 25, 347–373. doi:10.3102/01623737025004347
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caracelli, V. J., & Greene, J. C. (1993). Data analysis strategies for mixed-method evaluation designs. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 15, 195–207. doi:10.3102/01623737015002195
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castelli, L., Ragazzi, S., & Crescentini, A. (2012). Equity in education: A general overview. Procedia – Social and Behavioural Sciences, 69, 2243–2250. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.12.194
   Google Scholar
• Cavicchioni, V., & Motivans, A. (2001). Monitoring educational disparities in less developed countries. In W. Hutmacher, D. Cochrane, & N. Bottani (Eds.), In pursuit of equity in education: Using international indicators to compare equity policies (pp. 217–240). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. doi:10.1007/0-306-47579-0_9
   Google Scholar
• Chester, M. D. (2005). Making valid and consistent inferences about school effectiveness from multiple measures. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 24(4), 40–52. doi:10.1111/j.1745-3992.2005.00022.x
   Google Scholar
• Chudgar, A., & Luschei, T. F. (2010). Does inequality influence the impact of schools on student mathematics achievement? A comparison of nine high-, medium-, and low-inequality countries. In A. W. Wiseman (Ed.), The impact of international achievement studies on national education policymaking (pp. 63–84). Bingley, UK: Emerald. doi:10.1108/S1479-3679(2010)0000013006
   Google Scholar
• Cochran-Smith, M., & Villegas, A. M. (2016). Preparing teachers for diversity and high poverty schools: A research-based perspective. In J. Lampert & B. Burnett (Eds.), Teacher education for high poverty schools (pp. 9–31). New York, NY: Springer Press.
   Google Scholar
• Crossley, M., Bray, M., & Packer, S. (2011). Education in small states: Policies and priorities. London, UK: Commonwealth Secretariat.
   Google Scholar
• De Lisle, J. (2008). Can standards-referenced, large-scale assessment data lead to improvement in the education system?: Judging the utility of student performance standards in the primary school national assessments of educational achievement. Caribbean Curriculum, 15, 71–114.
   Google Scholar
• De Lisle, J. (2011). The benefits and challenges of mixing methods and methodologies: Lessons learnt from implementing qualitatively led mixed methods research designs in Trinidad and Tobago. Caribbean Curriculum, 18, 87–120.
   Google Scholar
• De Lisle, J. (2012). Explaining whole system reform in small states: The case of the Trinidad and Tobago secondary education modernization program. Current Issues in Comparative Education, 15(1), 64–82.
   Google Scholar
• De Lisle, J. (2016). Evolving data use policy in Trinidad and Tobago: The search for actionable knowledge on educational improvement in a small island developing state. Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability, 28, 35–60. doi:10.1007/s11092-015-9232-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Lisle, J., Seecharan, H., & Ayodike, A. T. (2010, March). Is the Trinidad and Tobago education system structured to facilitate optimum human capital development? New findings on the relationship between education structures and outcomes from National and International Assessments. Paper presented at the 11th Annual SALISES conference, Turmoil and turbulence in small developing states: Going beyond survival, Port of Spain, Trinidad & Tobago.
   Google Scholar
• De Lisle, J., Smith, P., & Jules, V. (2010). Evaluating the geography of gendered achievement using large-scale assessment data from the primary school system of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. International Journal of Educational Development, 30, 405–417. doi:10.1016/j.ijedudev.2010.01.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Demeuse, M., Frandji, D., Greger, D., & Rochex, J. (Eds.). (2012). Educational policies and inequalities in Europe. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Duru-Bellat, M., & Suchaut, B. (2005). Organisation and context, efficiency and equity of educational systems: What PISA tells us. European Educational Research Journal, 4, 181–194. doi:10.2304/eerj.2005.4.3.3
   Google Scholar
• Ellingson, L. L. (2009). Engaging crystallization in qualitative research: An introduction. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Field, S., Kuczera, M., & Pont, B. (2007). No more failures: Ten steps to equity in education. Paris, France: OECD.
   Google Scholar
• Fuller, B. (1987). What school factors raise achievement in the Third World? Review of Educational Research, 57, 255–292. doi:10.3102/00346543057003255
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ganimian, A. J., & Solano Rocha, A. (2011). Measuring up? How did Latin America and the Caribbean perform on the 2009 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)? Washington, DC: Partnership for Educational Revitalization in the Americas (PREAL). Retrieved from http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/alejandro_ganimian/files/preal_pisa_englowres.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Garroway, C., & de Laiglesia, J. R. (2012). On the relevance of relative poverty for developing countries (OECD Development Centre Working Paper No. 314). Paris, France: OECD.
   Google Scholar
• Goddard, R. D., Hoy, W. K., & Woolfolk Hoy, A. (2000). Collective teacher efficacy: Its meaning, measure, and impact on student achievement. American Educational Research Journal, 37, 479–507. doi:10.2307/1163531
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldschmidt, P., Roschewski, P., Choi, K., Auty, W., Hebbler, S., Blank, R., & Williams, A. (2005). Policymakers’ guide to growth models for school accountability: How do accountability models differ? Washington, DC: The Council of Chief State School Officers. Retrieved from http://www.ccsso.org/Documents/2005/Policymakers_Guide_To_Growth_2005.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Government of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. (2002). Ministry of education strategic plan. Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago: Ministry of Education.
   Google Scholar
• Government of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. (2007). Vision 2020 draft national strategic plan. Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago: Ministry of Planning.
   Google Scholar
• Government of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. (2012). Education sector strategic plan: 2011–2015. Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago: Ministry of Education.
   Google Scholar
• Guest, G., MacQueen, K. M., & Namey, E. E. (2012). Applied thematic analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Harber, C., & Muthukrishna, N. (2000). School effectiveness and school improvement in context: The case of South Africa. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 11, 421–434. doi:10.1076/sesi.11.4.421.3559
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harris, A., & Chapman, C. (2002). Leadership in schools facing challenging circumstances. Management in Education, 16(1), 10–13. doi:10.1177/08920206020160010301
   Google Scholar
• Harris, A., & Chapman, C. (2004). Improving schools in difficult contexts: Towards a differentiated approach. British Journal of Educational Studies, 52, 417–431. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8527.2004.00276.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henry-Lee, A. (2001). The dynamics of poverty in Jamaica, 1989–1999. Social & Economic Studies, 50(1), 199–228.
   Google Scholar
• Henry-Lee, A. (2005). The nature of poverty in the garrison constituencies in Jamaica. Environment and Urbanization, 17(2), 83–99. doi:10.1177/095624780501700207
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herman, R. (2012). Scaling school turnaround. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk (JESPAR), 17, 25–33. doi:10.1080/10824669.2012.637166
   Google Scholar
• Herman, R., Dawson, P., Dee, T., Greene, J., Maynard, R., Redding, S., & Darwin, M. (2008). Turning around chronically low-performing schools: A practice guide (NCEE No. 2008-4020). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.
   Google Scholar
• Hesse-Biber, S. N. (2010). Mixed methods research: Merging theory with practice. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hopkins, D. (2001). Meeting the challenge: An improvement guide for schools facing challenging circumstances. London, UK: Department for Education and Skills.
   Google Scholar
• Houtveen, T., Van de Grift, W., Kuijpers, J., Boot, M., Groot, F., & Kooijman, H. (2007). Improving underperforming schools. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk (JESPAR), 12, 361–381. doi:10.1080/10824660701758884
   Google Scholar
• Jacobson, S. L. (2008). Leadership for success in high poverty elementary schools. Journal of Educational Leadership, Policy and Practice, 23(1), 3–17.
   Google Scholar
• Jang, E. E., McDougall, D. E., Pollon, D., Herbert, M., & Russell, P. (2008). Integrative mixed methods data analytic strategies in research on school success in challenging circumstances. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 2, 221–247. doi:10.1177/1558689808315323
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jensen, E. (2009). Teaching with poverty in mind: What being poor does to kids’ brains and what schools can do about it. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
   Google Scholar
• Jordan, W. J. (2010). Defining equity: Multiple perspectives to analyzing the performance of diverse learners. Review of Research in Education, 34, 142–178. doi:10.3102/0091732X09352898
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kairi Consultants. (2007). Analysis of the Trinidad and Tobago survey of living conditions. Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago: Ministry of Social Development.
   Google Scholar
• Kamper, G. (2008). A profile of effective leadership in some South African high-poverty schools. South African Journal of Education, 28, 1–18.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katz, C. M., Maguire, E. R., & Choate, D. (2011). A cross-national comparison of gangs in the United States and Trinidad and Tobago. International Criminal Justice Review, 21, 243–262. doi:10.1177/1057567711417179
   Google Scholar
• Khupe, C., Balkwill, K., Osman, R., & Cameron, A. (2013). A needle in a haystack: A search for value for money in turn-around strategies for schools in difficult circumstances. Educational Research, 55, 165–179. doi:10.1080/00131881.2013.801243
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, V. E. (2000). Using hierarchical linear modeling to study social contexts: The case of school effects. Educational Psychologist, 35, 125–141. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3502_6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, V. E., & Smith, J. B. (1999). Social support and achievement for young adolescents in Chicago: The role of school academic press. American Educational Research Journal, 36, 907–945. doi:10.3102/00028312036004907
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Libbey, H. P. (2004). Measuring student relationships to school: Attachment, bonding, connectedness, and engagement. The Journal of School Health, 74, 274–283. doi:10.1111/j.1746-1561.2004.tb08284.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ma, X., Ma, L., & Bradley, K. D. (2008). Using multilevel modeling to investigate school effects. In A. A. O’Connell & D. B. McCoach (Eds.), Multilevel modeling of educational data (pp. 59–110). Charlotte, NC: Information Age.
   Google Scholar
• MacBeath, J., Gray, J., Cullen, J., Cunnigham, H., Ebbutt, D., Frost, D., … Swaffield, S. (2005). Responding to challenging circumstances: Evaluation of the “Schools Facing Exceptionally Challenging Circumstances” project. Cambridge, UK: Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge.
   Google Scholar
• MacBeath, J., Gray, J. M., Cullen, J., Frost, D., Steward, S., & Swaffield, S. (2007). Schools on the edge: Responding to challenging circumstances. London, UK: Paul Chapman.
   Google Scholar
• MacKenzie, C. G. (1991). Denominational primary schooling: The case of Trinidad and Tobago. International Review of Education, 37, 211–226. doi:10.1007/BF00599680
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mason, J. (2006). Mixing methods in a qualitatively driven way. Qualitative Research, 6, 9–25. doi:10.1177/1468794106058866
   Google Scholar
• Maxwell, J. A. (2004). Causal explanation, qualitative research, and scientific inquiry in education. Educational Researcher, 33(2), 3–11. doi:10.3102/0013189X033002003
   Google Scholar
• McEvoy, P., & Richards, D. (2006). A critical realist rationale for using a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods. Journal of Research in Nursing, 11, 66–78. doi:10.1177/1744987106060192
   Google Scholar
• Mertens, D. M., & Hesse-Biber, S. (2013). Mixed methods and credibility of evidence in evaluation. New Directions for Evaluation, 2013(138), 5–13. doi:10.1002/ev.20053
   Google Scholar
• Miles, M. B., Huberman, A. M., & Saldana, J. (2014). Qualitative data analysis: A methods sourcebook (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Milner, H. R. (2013). Analyzing poverty, learning, and teaching through a critical race theory lens. Review of Research in Education, 37, 1–53. doi:10.3102/0091732X12459720
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Modell, S. (2009). In defence of triangulation: A critical realist approach to mixed methods research in management accounting. Management Accounting Research, 20, 208–221. doi:10.1016/j.mar.2009.04.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moran-Ellis, J., Alexander, V. D., Cronin, A., Dickinson, M., Fielding, J., Sleney, J., & Thomas, H. (2006). Triangulation and integration: Processes, claims and implications. Qualitative Research, 6, 45–59. doi:10.1177/1468794106058870
   Google Scholar
• Morse, J., & Niehaus, L. (2009). Mixed method design: Principles and procedures. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press.
   Google Scholar
• Muijs, D., Harris, A., Chapman, C., Stoll, L., & Russ, J. (2004). Improving schools in socioeconomically disadvantaged areas – A review of research evidence. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 15, 149–175. doi:10.1076/sesi.15.2.149.30433
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mullis, I. V. S., Martin, M. O., Kennedy, A. M., & Foy, P. (2007). PIRLS 2006 international report: IEA’s progress in international reading literacy study in primary school in 40 countries. Chestnut Hill, MA: TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, Lynch School of Education, Boston College.
   Google Scholar
• National Audit Office. (2006). Improving poorly performing schools in England. London, UK: HMSO.
   Google Scholar
• Onwuegbuzie, A. J., Johnson, R. B., & Collins, K. M. T. (2009). Call for mixed analysis: A philosophical framework for combining qualitative and quantitative approaches. International Journal of Multiple Research Approaches, 3, 114–139. doi:10.5172/mra.3.2.114
   Google Scholar
• Onwuegbuzie, A. J., Slate, J. R., Leech, N. L., & Collins, K. M. T. (2007). Conducting mixed analyses: A general typology. International Journal of Multiple Research Approaches, 1, 4–17. doi:10.5172/mra.455.1.1.4
   Google Scholar
• Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2010a). PISA 2009 results: Overcoming social background. Equality in learning opportunities and outcomes (Volume II). Paris, France: Author.
   Google Scholar
• Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2010b). PISA 2009 results: What makes a school successful? – Resources, policies and practices (Volume IV). Paris, France: Author.
   Google Scholar
• Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2012). Equity and quality in education: Supporting disadvantaged students and schools. Paris, France: Author.
   Google Scholar
• Oswald, M., & Engelbrecht, P. (2013). Leadership in disadvantaged primary schools: Two narratives of contrasting schools. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 41, 620–639. doi:10.1177/1741143213488377
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Painter, B., & Valentine, J. (1996). Instructional practices inventory. Instrument for identification of the level of classroom engagement for students and teachers. Colombia, MO: Middle Level Leadership Centre, University of Missouri.
   Google Scholar
• Raudenbush, S., Bryk, A., Cheong, Y. F., Congdon, R., & du Toit, M. (2011). HLM 7: Hierarchical linear and nonlinear modelling. Lincolnwood, IL: Scientific Software International.
   Google Scholar
• Ravela, P. (2005). A formative approach to national assessments: The case of uruguay. Prospects, 35, 21–43. doi:10.1007/s11125-005-6816-x
   Google Scholar
• Reimers, F. (2000). Unequal schools, unequal chances: The challenges to equal opportunity in the Americas. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Reynolds, D., Harris, A., Clarke, P., Harris, B., & James, S. (2006). Challenging the challenged: Developing an improvement programme for schools facing exceptionally challenging circumstances. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 17, 425–439. doi:10.1080/09243450600743509
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riddell, A. R. (1997). Assessing designs for school effectiveness research and school improvement in developing countries. Comparative Education Review, 41, 178–204. doi:10.1086/447429
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ryan, G. W., & Bernard, H. R. (2003). Techniques to identify themes. Field Methods, 15, 85–109. doi:10.1177/1525822x02239569
   Google Scholar
• Saldaña, J. (2013). The coding manual for qualitative researchers (2nd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: SAGE.
   Google Scholar
• Stake, R. E. (2006). Multiple case study analysis. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Teddlie, C., & Liu, S. (2008). Examining teacher effectiveness within differentially effective primary schools in the People’s Republic of China. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 19, 387–407. doi:10.1080/09243450802535182
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teddlie, C., & Sammons, P. (2010). Applications of mixed methods to the field of educational effectiveness research. In B. P. M. Creemers, L. Kyriakides, & P. Sammons (Eds.), Methodological advances in educational effectiveness research (pp. 115–152). London, UK: Routledge, Taylor & Francis.
   Google Scholar
• Teddlie, C., & Tashakkori, A. (2009). Foundations of mixed methods research: Integrating quantitative and qualitative approaches in the social and behavioural sciences. Los Angeles, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Teddlie, C., & Yu, F. (2007). Mixed methods sampling: A typology with examples. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1, 77–100. doi:10.1177/2345678906292430
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trong, K. L. (2009). Using PIRLS 2006 to measure equity in reading achievement internationally (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/2345/667
   Google Scholar
• Van de Grift, W. J. C. M., & Houtveen, A. A. M. (2006). Underperformance in primary schools. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 17, 255–273. doi:10.1080/09243450600697317
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van der Berg, S. (2008). How effective are poor schools? Poverty and educational outcomes in South Africa. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 34, 145–154. doi:10.1016/j.stueduc.2008.07.005
   Google Scholar
• Van de Werfhorst, H. G., & Mijs, J. J. B. (2010). Achievement inequality and the institutional structure of educational systems: A comparative perspective. Annual Review of Sociology, 36, 407–428. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.012809.102538
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verrest, H., & Reddock, R. (2004). Poverty and statistics in Trinidad and Tobago: An introduction. Caribbean Dialogue, 9(4), 1–11.
   Google Scholar
• Vigoda-Gadot, E., Beeri, I., Birman-Shemesh, T., & Somech, A. (2007). Group-level organizational citizenship behavior in the education system: A scale reconstruction and validation. Educational Administration Quarterly, 43, 462–493. doi:10.1177/0013161x07299435
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Willms, J. D. (2003). Student engagement at school: A sense of belonging and participation: Results from PISA 2000. Paris, France: OECD.
   Google Scholar
• World Bank. (1993). Caribbean region: Access, quality, and efficiency in education. Washington, DC: Author.
   Google Scholar
• World Bank. (1995a). Priorities and strategies for education: A World Bank review. Washington, DC: Author.
   Google Scholar
• World Bank. (1995b). Trinidad and Tobago: Poverty and unemployment in an oil based economy (Report No. 14382–TR). Washington, DC: Author.
   Google Scholar
• Wößmann, L. (2003). Schooling resources, educational institutions and student performance: The international evidence. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 65, 117–170. doi:10.1111/1468-0084.00045
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang, Y. (2003). Measuring socio-economic status and its effects at individual and collective levels: A cross-country comparison. Gothenburg, Sweden: Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis.
   Google Scholar
• Yin, R. (2014). Case study research: Design and methods (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Ylimaki, R. M., Jacobson, S. L., & Drysdale, L. (2007). Making a difference in challenging, high-poverty schools: Successful principals in the USA, England, and Australia. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 18, 361–381. doi:10.1080/09243450701712486
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar