Pediatric Pars Planitis: A Review

References

• Jabs DA, Nussenblatt RB, Rosenbaum JT, Standardization of Uveitis Nomenclature (SUN) Working Group. Standardization of uveitis nomenclature for reporting clinical data. Results of the first international Workshop. Am J Ophthalmol. 2005;140(3):509–516. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2005.03.057.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Standardization of Uveitis Nomenclature (SUN) Working Group. Classification criteria for intermediate uveitis, non–pars planitis type. Am J Ophthalmol. 2021;228:159–164. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2021.03.054.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Standardization of Uveitis Nomenclature (SUN) Working Group. Classification criteria for pars planitis. Am J Ophthalmol. 2021;228:268–274. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2021.03.045.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teo AYT, Betzler BK, Hua KLQ, Chen EJ, Gupta V, Agrawal R. Intermediate. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2023;31(5):1041–1060. doi:10.1080/09273948.2022.2070503.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tuğal-Tutkun I. An overview of pediatric uveitis. Turk Arch Pediatr. 2023;58(4):363–370. doi:10.5152/TurkArchPediatr.2023.23086.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kalinina Ayuso V, ten Cate HAT, van den Does P, Rothova A, de Boer JH. Young age as a risk factor for complicated course and visual outcome in intermediate uveitis in children. Br J Ophthalmol. 2011;95(5):646–651. doi:10.1136/bjo.2010.184267.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nikkhah H, Ramezani A, Ahmadieh H, Soheilian M, Azarmina M, Dehghan MH, et al. Childhood pars planitis; clinical features and outcomes. J Ophthalmic Vis Res. 2011;6(4):249–254.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Paroli MP, Spinucci G, Monte R, Pesci FR, Abicca I, Pivetti Pezzi P. Intermediate uveitis in a pediatric Italian population. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2011;19(5):321–326. doi:10.3109/09273948.2011.603878.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guest S, Funkhouser E, Lightman S. Pars planitis: a comparison of childhood onset and adult onset disease. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2001;29(2):81–84. doi:10.1046/j.1442-9071.2001.d01-7.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Przeździecka-Dołyk J, Węgrzyn A, Turno-Kręcicka A, Misiuk-Hojło M. Immunopathogenic background of pars planitis. Arch Immunol Ther Exp. 2016;64(2):127–137. doi:10.1007/s00005-015-0361-y.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wetzig RP, Chan CC, Nussenblatt RB, Palestine AG, Mazur DO, Mittal KK. Clinical and immunopathological studies of pars planitis in a family. Br J Ophthalmol. 1988;72(1):5–10. doi:10.1136/bjo.72.1.5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calder VL, Shaer B, Muhaya M, Mclauchlan M, Pearson RV, Jolly G. Increased CD4+ expression and decreased IL-10 in the anterior chamber in idiopathic uveitis. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1999;40(9):2019–2024.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murphy CC, Duncan L, Forrester JV, Dick AD. Systemic CD4(+) T cell phenotype and activation status in intermediate uveitis. Br J Ophthalmol. 2004;88(3):412–416. doi:10.1136/bjo.2003.028506.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pedroza-Seres M, Linares M, Voorduin S, et al. Pars planitis is associated with an increased frequency of effector-memory CD57+ T cells. Br J Ophthalmol. 2007;91(10):1393–1398. doi:10.1136/bjo.2007.116277.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chauhan K, Tripathy K. Pars Planitis. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls; 2018.
   Google Scholar
• Perez VL, Papaliodis GN, Chu D, Anzaar F, Christen W, Foster CS. Elevated levels of interleukin 6 in the vitreous fluid of patients with pars planitis and posterior uveitis: the Massachusetts eye & ear experience and review of previous studies. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2004;12(3):205–214. doi:10.1080/092739490500282.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raja SC, Jabs DA, Dunn JP, et al. Pars planitis: clinical features and class II HLA associations. Ophthalmology. 1999;106(3):594–599. doi:10.1016/S0161-6420(99)90122-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oruc S, Duffy BF, Mohanakumar T, Kaplan HJ. The association of HLA class II with pars planitis. Am J Ophthalmol. 2001;131(5):657–659. doi:10.1016/S0002-9394(00)00863-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alaez C, Arellanes L, Vazquez A, Flores H, Navarro P, Vazquez-García M. Classic pars planitis: strong correlation of class II genes with gender and some clinical features in Mexican mestizos. Hum Immunol. 2003;64(10):965–972. doi:10.1016/S0198-8859(03)00185-X.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tang WM, Pulido JS, Eckels DD, Han DP, Mieler WF, Pierce K. The association of HLA-DR15 and intermediate uveitis. Am J Ophthalmol. 1997;123(1):70–75. doi:10.1016/S0002-9394(14)70994-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith JA, Mackensen F, Sen HN, Leigh JF, Watkins AS, Pyatetsky D. Epidemiology and course of disease in childhood uveitis. Ophthalmology. 2009;116(8):1544–1551.e1. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2009.05.002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pederson JE, Kenyon KR, Green WR, Maumenee AE. Pathology of pars planitis. Am J Ophthalmol. 1978;86(6):762–774. doi:10.1016/0002-9394(78)90118-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BenEzra D, Cohen E, Maftzir G. Uveitis in children and adolescents. Br J Ophthalmol. 2005;89(4):444–448. doi:10.1136/bjo.2004.050609.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cunningham ET. Uveitis in children. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2000;8(4):251–261. doi:10.1076/ocii.8.4.251.6459.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khairallah M, Attia S, Zaouali S, Yahia SB, Kahloun R, Messaoud R. Pattern of childhood-onset uveitis in a referral center in Tunisia, North Africa. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2006;14(4):225–231. doi:10.1080/09273940600732372.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Esen E, Sizmaz S, Balci S, Ekinci RMK, Demircan N. Clinical features of childhood uveitis at a tertiary referral center in Southern Turkey. Int Ophthalmol. 2021;41(6):2073–2081. doi:10.1007/s10792-021-01764-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El Latif E A, Mousa R, Tawfeeq Mahdi M, et al. Etiology of pediatric uveitis in a tertiary pediatric eye hospital in Egypt. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2022;1–6. doi:10.1080/09273948.2022.2117201.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• AlBloushi AF, Solebo AL, Gokhale E, Hayouti H, Ajamil-Rodanes S, Petrushkin H. Long-term outcomes of pediatric idiopathic intermediate uveitis. Am J Ophthalmol. 2022;237:41–48. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2021.11.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soylu M, Ozdemir G, Anli A. Pediatric uveitis in southern Turkey. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 1997;5(3):197–202. doi:10.3109/09273949709116894.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodier-Bonifas C, Rochet E, Seve P, et.al. Uveitis in children: Epidemiological, clinical and prognostic characteristics. J Fr Ophtalmol. 2023;46(2):163–172. doi:10.1016/j.jfo.2022.08.005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paroli MP, Spinucci G, Liverani M, Monte R, Pezzi PP. Uveitis in childhood: an Italian clinical and epidemiological study. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2009;17(4):238–242. doi:10.1080/09273940802702561.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ozdal PC, Sen E, Yazici A, Ozturk F. Patterns of childhood-onset uveitis in a referral center in Turkey. J Ophthalmic Inflamm Infect [Internet]. 2012;2(1). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22002621/. cité août 2, 2023.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ozdal PC, Sen E, Yazici A, Ozturk F. Patterns of childhood-onset uveitis in a referral center in Turkey. J Ophthalmic Inflamm Infect. 2012;2(1):13–19.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Maris K, Van Calster J, Wouters C, Casteels I. Clinical symptoms and complications of pars planitis in childhood. Bull Soc Belge Ophtalmol. 2005;295:29–33.
   Google Scholar
• Donaldson MJ, Pulido JS, Herman DC, Diehl N, Hodge D. Pars planitis: a 20-year study of incidence, clinical features, and outcomes. Am J Ophthalmol. 2007;144(6):812–817. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2007.08.023.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prieto JF, Dios E, Gutierrez JM, Mayo A, Calonge M, Herreras JM. Pars planitis: epidemiology, treatment, and association with multiple sclerosis. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2001;9(2):93–102. doi:10.1076/ocii.9.2.93.3975.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Babu BM, Rathinam SR. Intermediate uveitis. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2010;58(1):21–27. doi:10.4103/0301-4738.58469.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lauer AK, Smith JR, Robertson JE, Rosenbaum JT. Vitreous hemorrhage is a common complication of pediatric pars planitis. Ophthalmology. 2002;109(1):95–98. doi:10.1016/S0161-6420(01)00866-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malinowski SM, Pulido JS, Folk JC. Long-term visual outcome and complications associated with pars planitis. Ophthalmology. 1993;100(6):818–824; discussion 825. doi:10.1016/S0161-6420(93)31567-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tugal-Tutkun I. Pediatric uveitis. J Ophthalmic Vis Res. 2011;6:259–269.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Arellanes-García L, Navarro-López P, Concha-Del Río LE, Unzueta-Medina JA. Idiopathic intermediate uveitis in childhood. Int Ophthalmol Clin. 2008;48(3):61–74. doi:10.1097/IIO.0b013e31817d84af.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Arellanes García L, Ortiz-Ponce G, Recillas-Gispert C. Peripheral corneal endotheliopathy and pars planitis. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 1996;4(3):135–138. doi:10.3109/09273949609079646.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khodadoust AA, Karnama Y, Stoessel KM, Puklin JE. Pars planitis and autoimmune endotheliopathy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1986;102(5):633–639. doi:10.1016/0002-9394(86)90537-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ozdal PC, Berker N, Tugal-Tutkun I. Pars planitis: epidemiology, clinical characteristics, management and visual prognosis. J Ophthalmic Vis Res. 2015;10(4):469–480. doi:10.4103/2008-322X.176897.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Diala FGI, McCarthy K, Chen JL, Tsui E. Multimodal imaging in pediatric uveitis. Ther Adv Ophthalmol. 2021;13:25158414211059244. doi:10.1177/25158414211059244.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsui I, Franco-Cardenas V, Hubschman JP, Schwartz SD. Pediatric retinal conditions imaged by ultra wide field fluorescein angiography. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging Retina. 2013;44(1):59–67. doi:10.3928/23258160-20121221-14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hong BK, Nazari Khanamiri H, Rao NA. Role of ultra-widefield fluorescein angiography in the management of uveitis. Can J Ophthalmol J Can Ophtalmol. 2013;48(6):489–493. doi:10.1016/j.jcjo.2013.05.009.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Navarrete A, Koriat A, Amer R. Implications of pars planitis-associated cystoid macular edema on visual outcome and management in children. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol Albrecht Von Graefes Arch Klin Exp Ophthalmol. 2020;258(8):1803–1811. doi:10.1007/s00417-020-04696-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yalçındağ FN, Temel E, Özgür EG. Spectral domain optical coherence tomography findings of patients with pars planitis and risk factors affecting visual acuity. Int Ophthalmol. 2021;41(5):1753–1761. doi:10.1007/s10792-021-01734-z.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keane PA, Karampelas M, Sim DA, et al. Objective measurement of vitreous inflammation using optical coherence tomography. Ophthalmology. 2014;121(9):1706–1714. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2014.03.006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khochtali S, Abroug N, Megzari K, Gargouri MA, Ksiaa I, Ben Amor H, et al. Swept-source optical coherence tomography angiography findings in Uveitic Cystoid Macular Edema. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2019;27(8):1211–1223. doi:10.1080/09273948.2019.1672195.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khochtali S, Tugal-Tutkun I, Fardeau C, Maestri F, Khairallah M. Multimodality approach to the diagnosis and assessment of uveitic macular edema. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2020;28(8):1212–1222. doi:10.1080/09273948.2020.1797112.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wintergerst MWM, Pfau M, Müller PL, et al. Optical coherence tomography angiography in intermediate uveitis. Am J Ophthalmol. 2018;194:35–45. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2018.06.023.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim AY, Rodger DC, Shahidzadeh A, et al. Quantifying retinal microvascular changes in uveitis using spectral-domain optical coherence tomography angiography. Am J Ophthalmol. 2016;171:101–112. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2016.08.035.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lupidi M, Coscas F, Cagini C, Coscas G. Optical coherence tomography angiography in macular edema. Dev Ophthalmol. 2017;58:63–73.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tian M, Tappeiner C, Zinkernagel MS, Huf W, Wolf S, Munk MR. Evaluation of vascular changes in intermediate uveitis and retinal vasculitis using swept-source wide-field optical coherence tomography angiography. Br J Ophthalmol. 2019;103(9):1289–1295. doi:10.1136/bjophthalmol-2018-313078.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doro D, Manfrè A, Deligianni V, Secchi AG. Combined 50- and 20-MHz frequency ultrasound imaging in intermediate uveitis. Am J Ophthalmol. 2006;141(5):953–955. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2005.11.048.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greiner KH, Kilmartin DJ, Forrester JV, Atta HR. Grading of pars planitis by ultrasound biomicroscopy—echographic and clinical study. Eur J Ultrasound Off J Eur Fed Soc Ultrasound Med Biol. 2002;15(3):139–144. doi:10.1016/S0929-8266(02)00035-6.
   Google Scholar
• de Boer J, Berendschot TTJM, van der Does P, Rothova A. Long-term follow-up of intermediate uveitis in children. Am J Ophthalmol. 2006;141(4):616–621. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2005.09.035.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hersh AO, Cope S, Bohnsack JF, Shakoor A, Vitale AT. Use of immunosuppressive medications for treatment of pediatric intermediate uveitis. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2018;26(4):642–650. doi:10.1080/09273948.2016.1255340.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jain R, Ferrante P, Reddy GT, Lightman S. Clinical features and visual outcome of intermediate uveitis in children. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2005;33(1):22–25. doi:10.1111/j.1442-9071.2005.00938.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Symeonidis C, Matsou A, Tzetzi D, Dermenoudi M, Brazitikos P, Mataftsi A. Amblyopia due to intermediate uveitis as the presenting symptom of Crohn’s disease in a 6-year-old boy. J AAPOS Off Publ Am Assoc Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. 2017;21(6):512–514. doi:10.1016/j.jaapos.2017.07.218.
   Google Scholar
• Felder KS, Brockhurst RJ. Neovascular fundus abnormalities in peripheral uveitis. Arch Ophthalmol Chic Ill 1960. 1982;100(5):750–754. doi:10.1001/archopht.1982.01030030754006.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Giles CL. Pediatric intermediate uveitis. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. 1989;26(3):136–139. doi:10.3928/0191-3913-19890501-10.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kim YK, Yoon W, Ahn JK, Park SP. Scleral buckling for rhegmatogenous retinal detachment associated with pars planitis. J Ophthalmol. 2016;2016:4538193. doi:10.1155/2016/4538193.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malalis JF, Bhat P, Shapiro M, Goldstein DA. Retinoschisis in pars planitis. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2017;25(3):344–348. doi:10.3109/09273948.2015.1125511.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jalil A, Dhawahir-Scala FE, Jones NP. Nonprogressive tractional inferior retinal elevation in intermediate uveitis. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2010;18(1):60–63. doi:10.3109/09273940903315784.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shields JA, Reichstein D, Mashayekhi A, Shields CL. Retinal vasoproliferative tumors in ocular conditions of childhood. J AAPOS Off Publ Am Assoc Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. 2012;16(1):6–9. doi:10.1016/j.jaapos.2011.10.010.
   Google Scholar
• Nussenblatt RB, Whitcup SM, Palestine AG. Intermediate uveitis. In: Craven L, ed. Uveitis, Fundamentals, and Clinical Practice. St Louis: Mosby; 1996:279–288.
   Google Scholar
• Capone A, Aaberg TM. Intermediate uveitis. In: Albert D Jacobeic F, eds. Principles and Practice of Ophthalmology. Philadelphia: WB Saunders Company; 1994:423–442.
   Google Scholar
• Khairallah M. Are the Standardization of the Uveitis Nomenclature (SUN) working group criteria for codifying the site of inflammation appropriate for all uveitis problems? Limitations of the SUN working group classification. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2010;18(1):2–4. doi:10.3109/09273940903348835.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Català-Mora J, Parareda-Salles A, Vicuña-Muñoz CG, Medina-Zurinaga M, Prat-Bartomeu J. Uveitis masquerade syndrome as a presenting form of diffuse retinoblastoma. Arch Soc Espanola Oftalmol. 2009;84(9):477–480. doi:10.4321/S0365-66912009000900008.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Domínguez-Varela IA, Aguilera-Partida JA, Dalvin LA, et al. Retinoblastoma in an older Hispanic child masquerading as pars planitis: a case report. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2022;32(3):NP71–4. doi:10.1177/1120672121994487.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Standardization of Uveitis Nomenclature (SUN). Classification Criteria for multiple sclerosis-associated intermediate uveitis. Am J Ophthalmol. 2021;228:72–79. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2021.03.044.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amaratunge BC, Camuglia JE, Hall AJ. Syphilitic uveitis: a review of clinical manifestations and treatment outcomes of syphilitic uveitis in human immunodeficiency virus-positive and negative patients. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2010;38(1):68–74. doi:10.1111/j.1442-9071.2010.02203.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khalsa A, Kelgaonkar A, Padhy SK, et al. Posterior subhyaloid precipitates: ‘KPs’ of the posterior segment. Semin Ophthalmol. 2021;36(8):751–756. doi:10.1080/08820538.2021.1900291.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agrawal R, Gunasekeran DV, Grant R, et al. Clinical features and outcomes of patients with tubercular uveitis treated with antitubercular therapy in the collaborative ocular tuberculosis study (COTS)-1. JAMA Ophthalmol. 2017;135(12):1318–1327. doi:10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2017.4485.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Babu K, Bhat SS. Unilateral snow banking in tuberculosis-related intermediate uveitis. J Ophthalmic Inflamm Infect. 2014;4(1):4. doi:10.1186/1869-5760-4-4.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Woodhall D, Starr MC, Montgomery SP, et al. Ocular toxocariasis: epidemiologic, anatomic, and therapeutic variations based on a survey of ophthalmic subspecialists. Ophthalmology. 2012;119(6):1211–1217. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2011.12.013.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huppertz HI, Münchmeier D, Lieb W. Ocular manifestations in children and adolescents with Lyme arthritis. Br J Ophthalmol. 1999;83(10):1149–1152. doi:10.1136/bjo.83.10.1149.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mochizuki M, Smith JR, Takase H, et al. Revised criteria of International Workshop on Ocular Sarcoidosis (IWOS) for the diagnosis of ocular sarcoidosis. Br J Ophthalmol. 2019;103(10):1418–1422. doi:10.1136/bjophthalmol-2018-313356.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang SJ, Salek S, Rosenbaum JT. Ocular sarcoidosis: new diagnostic modalities and treatment. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2017;23(5):458–467. doi:10.1097/MCP.0000000000000409.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shetty AK, Gedalia A. Childhood sarcoidosis: a rare but fascinating disorder. Pediatr Rheumatol Online J. 2008;6(1):16. doi:10.1186/1546-0096-6-16.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Manouvrier-Hanu S, Puech B, Piette F, et al. Blau syndrome of granulomatous arthritis, iritis, and skin rash: a new family and review of the literature. Am J Med Genet. 1998;76(3):217–221. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-8628(19980319)76:3<217:AID-AJMG4>3.0.CO;2-N.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ksiaa I, Abroug N, Kechida M, Zina S, Jelliti B, Khochtali S, et al. Eye and Behçet’s disease. J Fr Ophtalmol. 2019;42(4):e133–e146. doi:10.1016/j.jfo.2019.02.002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tugal-Tutkun I, Gupta V, Cunningham ET. Differential diagnosis of behçet uveitis. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2013;21(5):337–350. doi:10.3109/09273948.2013.795228.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erol Y Ö, İnanç M, Fuchs’ ÖP. Uveitis: is it different from what we know? Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2022;30(1):62–67. doi:10.1080/09273948.2020.1795207.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tugal-Tutkun I, Güney-Tefekli E, Kamaci-Duman F, Corum I. A cross-sectional and longitudinal study of Fuchs uveitis syndrome in Turkish patients. Am J Ophthalmol. 2009;148(4):510–515.e1. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2009.04.007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forrester JV, okada AA, Ben Ezra D, Ohno S, ed. Pars planitis. In: Posterior Segment Intraocular Inflammation: Guidelines. The Hague, Netherlands: Kugler Publications; 1998:93‑97.
   Google Scholar
• Kump L, Vitale AT, Foster CS. Pediatric uveitis. In: Foster C Vitale A, eds. Diagnosis and Treatment of Uveitis. New Delhi, India: Highlights Medical Publishers; 2013:1223–1225.
   Google Scholar
• Ozdemir HB, Ozdal PC. Clinical characteristics and treatment of pars planitis: an adalimumab experience. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol Albrecht Von Graefes Arch Klin Exp Ophthalmol. 2022;260(2):561–569. doi:10.1007/s00417-021-05398-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaplan HJ. Intermediate uveitis (pars planitis, chronic cyclitis) – a four step approach to treatment. In: Saari K, ed. Uveitis Update. Amsterdam: Experta Medica; 1984:169–172.
   Google Scholar
• Helm CJ, Holland GN. The effects of posterior subtenon injection of triamcinolone acetonide in patients with intermediate uveitis. Am J Ophthalmol. 1995;120(1):55–64. doi:10.1016/S0002-9394(14)73759-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yalcinsoy KO, Ozdal PC, Sen E, Elgin U. Intraocular pressure elevation after posterior subtenon triamcinolone acetonide injection in pediatric non-infectious uveitis. Beyoglu Eye J. 2022;7(4):298–303. doi:10.14744/bej.2022.97752.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kothari S, Foster CS, Pistilli M, et al. The risk of intraocular pressure elevation in pediatric noninfectious uveitis. Ophthalmology. 2015;122(10):1987–2001. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2015.06.041.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Kooij B, Rothova A, de Vries P. The pros and cons of intravitreal triamcinolone injections for uveitis and inflammatory cystoid macular edema. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2006;14(2):73–85. doi:10.1080/09273940500545684.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Biswas J, Sudharshan S. Intermediate uveitis. In: Gupta A, Gupta V, Herbort CP, Khairallah M, eds. UVEITIS Text and Imaging. New Delhi: Jaypee Brothers; 2009:348–362.
   Google Scholar
• Lowder C, Belfort R, Lightman S, et al. Dexamethasone intravitreal implant for noninfectious intermediate or posterior uveitis. Arch Ophthalmol Chic Ill 1960. 2011;129(5):545–553. doi:10.1001/archophthalmol.2010.339.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor SRJ, Tomkins-Netzer O, Joshi L, Morarji J, McLoone E, Lightman S. Dexamethasone implant in pediatric uveitis. Ophthalmology. 2012;119(11):2412–2412.e2. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2012.07.025.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sella R, Oray M, Friling R, Umar L, Tugal-Tutkun I, Kramer M. Dexamethasone intravitreal implant (Ozurdex®) for pediatric uveitis. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol Albrecht Von Graefes Arch Klin Exp Ophthalmol. 2015;253(10):1777–1782. doi:10.1007/s00417-015-3124-x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tomkins-Netzer O, Talat L, Seguin-Greenstein S, Bar A, Lightman S. Outcome of treating pediatric uveitis with dexamethasone implants. Am J Ophthalmol. 2016;161:110–115.e1–2. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2015.09.036.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winterhalter S, Behrens UD, Salchow D, Joussen AM, Pleyer U. Dexamethasone implants in paediatric patients with noninfectious intermediate or posterior uveitis: first prospective exploratory case series. BMC Ophthalmol. 2017;17(1):252. doi:10.1186/s12886-017-0648-3.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Maleki A, Anesi SD, Look-Why S, Manhapra A, Foster CS. Pediatric uveitis: a comprehensive review. Surv Ophthalmol. 2022;67(2):510–529. doi:10.1016/j.survophthal.2021.06.006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Serna-Ojeda JC, Pedroza-Seres M. Treatment with immunosuppressive therapy in patients with pars planitis: experience of a reference centre in Mexico. Br J Ophthalmol. 2014;98(11):1503–1507. doi:10.1136/bjophthalmol-2014-304913.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tugal-Tutkun I, Ayranci O, Kasapcopur O, Kir N. Retrospective analysis of children with uveitis treated with infliximab. J AAPOS Off Publ Am Assoc Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. 2008;12(6):611–613. doi:10.1016/j.jaapos.2008.08.007.
   Google Scholar
• Ardoin SP, Kredich D, Rabinovich E, Schanberg LE, Jaffe GJ. Infliximab to treat chronic noninfectious uveitis in children: retrospective case series with long-term follow-up. Am J Ophthalmol. 2007;144(6):844–849. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2007.08.018.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Biester S, Deuter C, Michels H, et al. Adalimumab in the therapy of uveitis in childhood. Br J Ophthalmol. 2007;91(3):319–324. doi:10.1136/bjo.2006.103721.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gallagher M, Quinones K, Cervantes-Castañeda RA, Yilmaz T, Foster CS. Biological response modifier therapy for refractory childhood uveitis. Br J Ophthalmol. 2007;91(10):1341–1344. doi:10.1136/bjo.2007.124081.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maccora I, Fusco E, Marrani E, Ramanan AV, Simonini G. Changing evidence over time: updated meta-analysis regarding anti-TNF efficacy in childhood chronic uveitis. Rheumatol Oxf Engl. 2021;60(2):568–587. doi:10.1093/rheumatology/keaa595.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts JE, Nigrovic PA, Lo MS, Chang MH. Weekly adalimumab, an effective alternative for refractory uveitis in children. J Clin Rheumatol Pract Rep Rheum Musculoskelet Dis. 2022;28(1):e301–4. doi:10.1097/RHU.0000000000001707.
   Google Scholar
• Ramanan AV, Dick AD, Jones AP, et al. Adalimumab plus methotrexate for uveitis in juvenile idiopathic arthritis. N Engl J Med. 2017;376(17):1637–1646. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1614160.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quartier P, Baptiste A, Despert V, et al. ADJUVITE: a double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial of adalimumab in early onset, chronic, juvenile idiopathic arthritis-associated anterior uveitis. Ann Rheum Dis. 2018;77(7):1003–1011. doi:10.1136/annrheumdis-2017-212089.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jaffe GJ, Dick AD, Brézin AP, et al. Adalimumab in patients with active noninfectious uveitis. N Engl J Med. 2016;375(10):932–943. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1509852.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nguyen QD, Merrill PT, Jaffe GJ, et al. Adalimumab for prevention of uveitic flare in patients with inactive non-infectious uveitis controlled by corticosteroids (VISUAL II): a multicentre, double-masked, randomised, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial. Lancet Lond Engl. 2016;388(10050):1183–1192. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31339-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simonini G, Taddio A, Cattalini M, Caputo R, de Libero C, Parentin F, et al. Superior efficacy of adalimumab in treating childhood refractory chronic uveitis when used as first biologic modifier drug: adalimumab as starting anti-TNF-α therapy in childhood chronic uveitis. Pediatr Rheumatol Online J. 2013;11(1):16. doi:10.1186/1546-0096-11-16.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ozer MD, Batur M. Anti-tumor necrosis factor-alpha treatment in pediatric patients with pars planitis: a single-center experience from Turkey. Int Ophthalmol. 2023;43(1):155–166. doi:10.1007/s10792-022-02398-z.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vitale A, Casa FD, Guerriero S, et al. Efficacy and safety of adalimumab in pediatric non-infectious non-anterior uveitis: real-life experience from the international AIDA network uveitis registry. Ophthalmol Ther. 2023;12(4):1957–1971. doi:10.1007/s40123-023-00712-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ashkenazy N, Saboo US, Abraham A, Ronconi C, Cao JH. Successful treatment with infliximab after adalimumab failure in pediatric noninfectious uveitis. J AAPOS Off Publ Am Assoc Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. 2019;23(3):151.e1–151.e5. doi:10.1016/j.jaapos.2019.02.006.
   Google Scholar
• Heinz C, Schoonbrood S, Heiligenhaus A. Intermediate uveitis in children and young adults: differences in clinical course, associations and visual outcome. Br J Ophthalmol. 2014;98(8):1107–1111. doi:10.1136/bjophthalmol-2013-304589.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petrushkin H, Kidd D, Pavesio C. Intermediate uveitis and multiple sclerosis: to scan or not to scan: table 1. Br J Ophthalmol. 2015;99(12):1591–1593. doi:10.1136/bjophthalmol-2015-307269.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ding T, Ledingham J, Luqmani R, et al. BSR and BHPR rheumatoid arthritis guidelines on safety of anti-TNF therapies. Rheumatol Oxf Engl. 2010;49(11):2217–2219. doi:10.1093/rheumatology/keq249a.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kemanetzoglou E, Andreadou E. CNS demyelination with TNF-α blockers. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2017;17(4):36. doi:10.1007/s11910-017-0742-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wennink RAW, Ayuso VK, de Vries LA, Vastert SJ, de Boer JH. Tocilizumab as an effective treatment option in children with refractory intermediate and panuveitis. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2021;29(1):21–25. doi:10.1080/09273948.2020.1712431.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quinones K, Choi JY, Yilmaz T, Kafkala C, Letko E, Foster CS. Pars plana vitrectomy versus immunomodulatory therapy for intermediate uveitis: a prospective, randomized pilot study. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2010;18(5):411–417. doi:10.3109/09273948.2010.501132.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trittibach P, Koerner F, Sarra GM, Garweg JG. Vitrectomy for juvenile uveitis: prognostic factors for the long-term functional outcome. Eye Lond Engl. 2006;20(2):184–190. doi:10.1038/sj.eye.6701845.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stavrou P, Baltatzis S, Letko E, Samson CM, Christen W, Foster CS. Pars plana vitrectomy in patients with intermediate uveitis. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2001;9(3):141–151. doi:10.1076/ocii.9.3.141.3965.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mazzeo TJMM, Cristina Mendonça Freire R, Guimarães Machado C, Gomes AMV, Curi ALL. Vitreoretinal surgery in uveitis: from old to new concepts - a review. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 24, 2023:1–14. doi:10.1080/09273948.2023.2193842.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aaberg TM, Cesarz TJ, Flickinger RR. Treatment of pars planitis. I. cryotherapy. Surv Ophthalmol. 1977;22(2):120–125. doi:10.1016/0039-6257(77)90092-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Devenyi RG, Mieler WF, Lambrou FH, Will BR, Aaberg TM. Cryopexy of the vitreous base in the management of peripheral uveitis. Am J Ophthalmol. 1988;106(2):135–138. doi:10.1016/0002-9394(88)90824-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sohn EH, Chaon BC, Jabs DA, Folk JC. Peripheral cryoablation for treatment of active pars planitis: long-term outcomes of a retrospective study. Am J Ophthalmol. 2016;162:35–42.e2. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2015.11.009.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franklin RM. Laser photocoagulation of retinal neovascularization in intermediate uveitis. Dev Ophthalmol. 1992;23:251–260.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pulido JS, Mieler WF, Walton D, et al. Results of peripheral laser photocoagulation in pars planitis. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1998;96:127–137; discussion 137–141.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sızmaz S, Güngör SG, Bayar SA, Yılmaz G, Akkoyun I. Laser photocoagulation in intermediate uveitis associated with retinoschisis. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2012;20(5):372–374. doi:10.3109/09273948.2012.704116.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ganesh SK, Babu K, Biswas J. Phacoemulsification with intraocular lens implantation in cases of pars planitis. J Cataract Refract Surg. 2004;30(10):2072–2076. doi:10.1016/j.jcrs.2004.02.090.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Albavera-Giles T, Serna-Ojeda JC, Jimenez-Corona A, Pedroza-Seres M. Outcomes of cataract surgery with/without vitrectomy in patients with pars planitis and immunosuppressive therapy. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol Albrecht Von Graefes Arch Klin Exp Ophthalmol. 2017;255(6):1213–1219. doi:10.1007/s00417-017-3658-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arellanes-García L, Navarro-López L, Recillas-Gispert C. Pars planitis in the Mexican mestizo population: ocular findings, treatment, and visual outcome. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2003;11(1):53–60. doi:10.1076/ocii.11.1.53.15583.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar