Publication Cover
Child Neuropsychology
A Journal on Normal and Abnormal Development in Childhood and Adolescence
Volume 21, 2015 - Issue 2
688
Views
53
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review Article

Perinatally acquired HIV infection: Long-term neuropsychological consequences and challenges ahead

&
Pages 234-268 | Received 06 Oct 2013, Accepted 22 Feb 2014, Published online: 03 Apr 2014

REFERENCES

  • Agwu, A. L., & Fairlie, L. (2013). Antiretroviral treatment, management challenges and outcomes in perinatally HIV-infected adolescents. Journal of the International AIDS Society, 16, 18579. doi:10.7448/IAS.16.1.18579
  • American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
  • An, S. F., Groves, M., Gray, F., & Scaravilli, F. (1999). Early entry and widespread cellular involvement of HIV-1 DNA in brains of HIV-1 positive asymptomatic individuals. Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology, 58, 1156–1162. doi:10.1097/00005072-199911000-00005
  • Angelini, L., Zibordi, F., Triulzi, F., Cinque, P., Giudici, B., Pinzani, R., & Plebani, A. (2000). Age-dependent neurologic manifestations of HIV infection in childhood. Neurological Sciences, 21, 135–142. doi:10.1007/s100720070088
  • Ashby, J., Foster, C., Garvey, L., Wan, T., Allsop, J., Paramesparan, Y., & Winston, A. (2011). Cerebral function in perinatally HIV-infected young adults and their HIV-uninfected sibling controls. HIV Medicine, 1, 11.
  • Bachanas, P. J., Kullgren, K. A., Schwartz, K. S., Lanier, B., McDaniel, J. S., Smith, J., & Nesheim, S. (2001). Predictors of psychological adjustment in school-age children infected with HIV. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 26, 343–352. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/26.6.343
  • Bagenda, D., Nassali, A., Kalyesubula, I., Sherman, B., Drotar, D., Boivin, M. J., & Olness, K. (2006). Health, neurologic, and cognitive status of HIV-infected, long-surviving, and antiretroviral-naive Ugandan children. Pediatrics, 117, 729–740. doi:10.1542/peds.2004-2699
  • Banakar, S., Thomas M. A., Deveikis A., Watzl J. Q., Hayes J., & Keller M. A. (2008). Two-dimensional 1H MR spectroscopy of the brain in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected children. Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging, 27, 710–717. doi:10.1002/jmri.21251
  • Barret, B., Tardieu, M., Rustin, P., Lacroix, C., Chabrol, B., Desguerre, I., … The for the French Perinatal Cohort Study Group. (2003). Persistent mitochondrial dysfunction in HIV-1-exposed but uninfected infants. AIDS, 17, 1769–1785. doi:10.1097/00002030-200308150-00006
  • Battles, H. A., & Wiener, L. (2002). From adolescence through young adulthood: Psychosocial adjustment associated with long-term survival of HIV. Journal of Adolescent Health, 30, 161–168. doi:10.1016/S1054-139X(01)00341-X
  • Belman, A. L., Ultmann, M. H., Horoupian, D., Novick, B., Spiro, A. J., Rubinstein, A., … Cone-Wesson, B. (1985). Neurological complications in infants and children with acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Annals of Neurology, 18, 560–566. doi:10.1002/ana.410180509
  • Betancourt, T. S., Meyers-Ohki, S. E., Charrow, A., & Hansen, N. (2013). Annual Research Review: Mental health and resilience in HIV/AIDS-affected children – a review of the literature and recommendations for future research. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54, 423–444. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02613.x
  • Bishop, J. B., Witt, K. L., Tice, R. R., & Wolfe, G. W. (2004). Genetic damage detected in CD-1 mouse pups exposed perinatally to 3'-Azido-3'-deoxythymidine and dideoxyinosine via maternal dosing, nursing, and direct gavage. Environmental and Molecular Mutagenesis, 43, 3–9. doi:10.1002/em.10210
  • Bisiacchi, P. S., Suppiej, A., & Laverda, A. (2000). Neuropsychological evaluation of neurologically asymptomatic HIV-infected children. Brain and Cognition, 43, 49–52.
  • Blanchette, N., Fernandes-Penney, A., King, S., & Read, S. (2001). Cognitive and motor development in children with vertically transmitted HIV infection. Brain and Cognition, 46(1), 50–53.
  • Blanchette, N., Smith, M. L., King, S., Fernandes-Penney, A., & Read, S. (2002). Cognitive development in school-age children with vertically transmitted HIV infection. Developmental Neuropsychology, 21, 223–241. doi:10.1207/S15326942DN2103_1
  • Boivin, M. J., Busman, R. A., Parikh, S. M., Bangirana, P., Page, C. F., Opoka, R. O., & Giordani, B. (2010). A pilot study of the neuropsychological benefits of computerized cognitive rehabilitation in Ugandan children with HIV. Neuropsychology, 24, 667–673. doi:10.1037/a0019312
  • Boivin, M. J., & Giordani, B. (eds.) (2013). Neuropsychology of children in Africa: Perspectives on risk and resilience, specialty topics in pediatric neuropsychology. New York, NY: Springer Science + Business Media.
  • Bomba, M., Nacinovich, R., Oggiano, S., Cassani, M., Baushi, L., Bertulli, C., … Badolato, R. (2010). Poor health-related quality of life and abnormal psychosocial adjustment in Italian children with perinatal HIV infection receiving highly active antiretroviral treatment. AIDS Care: Psychological and Socio-Medical Aspects of AIDS/HIV, 22, 858–865. doi:10.1080/09540120903483018
  • Boudreau, M. E., & Fisher, C. M. (2012). Providing effective medical and case management services to HIV-Infected youth preparing to transition to adult care. Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 23, 318–328. doi:10.1016/j.jana.2011.06.003
  • Brackis-Cott, E., Kang, E., Dolezal, C., Abrams, E. J., & Mellins, C. A. (2009a). Brief report: Language ability and school functioning of youth perinatally infected with HIV. Journal of Pediatric Health Care, 23, 158–164. doi:10.1016/j.pedhc.2008.02.005
  • Brackis-Cott, E., Kang, E., Dolezal, C., Abrams, E. J., & Mellins, C. A. (2009b). The impact of perinatal HIV infection on older school-aged children’s and adolescents’ receptive language and word recognition skills. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 23, 415–421. doi:10.1089/apc.2008.0197
  • Brackis-Cott, E., Mellins, C. A., Dolezal, C., & Spiegel, D. (2007). The mental health risk of mothers and children: The role of maternal HIV infection. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 27, 67–89. doi:10.1177/0272431606294824
  • Brady, M. T., Oleske, J. M., Williams, P. L., Elgie, C., Mofenson, L. M., Dankner, W. M.,… The Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group 219/219C Team. (2010). Declines in mortality rates and changes in causes of death in HIV-1-infected children during the HAART era. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 53, 86–94. doi:10.1097/QAI.0b013e3181b9869f
  • Brouwers, P., Civitello, L., DeCarli, C., Wolters, P., & Sei, S. (2000). Cerebrospinal fluid viral load is related to cortical atrophy and not to intracerebral calcifications in children with symptomatic HIV disease. Journal of Neurovirology, 6, 390–397. doi:10.3109/13550280009018303
  • Brouwers, P., DeCarli, C., Civitello, L., Moss, H., Wolters, P., & Pizzo, P. (1995). Correlation between computed tomographic brain scan abnormalities and neuropsychological function in children with symptomatic human immunodeficiency virus disease. Archives of Neurology, 52, 39–44. doi:10.1001/archneur.1995.00540250043011
  • Brouwers, P., Moss, H., Wolters, P., Eddy J., Balis F., Poplack D. G., & Pizzo P. A. (1990). Effect of continuous-infusion zidovudine therapy on neuropsychologic functioning in children with symptomatic human immunodeficiency virus infection. The Journal of Pediatrics, 117, 980–985. doi:10.1016/S0022-3476(05)80150-7
  • Brouwers, P., van der Vlugt, H., Moss, H., Wolters, P., & Pizzo, P. (1995). White matter changes on CT brain scan are associated with neurobehavioral dysfunction in children with symptomatic HIV disease. Child Neuropsychology, 1, 93–105. doi:10.1080/09297049508402241
  • Brown, K. C., Inge, L. D., & Rathore, M. H. (2008). Neurological consequences of antiretroviral treatment. In L. L. Barton & N. R. Friedman (Eds.), The Neurological manifestations of pediatric infectious diseases and immunodeficiency syndromes (pp. 173–184). Totowa, NJ: Humana Press.
  • Butler, A. M., Williams, P. L., Howland, L. C., Storm, D., Hutton, N., Seage, G. & The 219C Study Team. (2009). Impact of disclosure of HIV infection on health-related quality of life among children and adolescents with HIV infection. Pediatrics, 123, 935–943. doi:10.1542/peds.2008-1290
  • Butler, R. W., Sahler, O. J. Z., Askins, M. A., Alderfer, M. A., Katz, E. R., Phipps, S., & Noll, R. B. (2008). Interventions to improve neuropsychological functioning in childhood cancer survivors. Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 14(3), 251–258.
  • CDC. (2012, November). Vital signs: HIV infection, testing and risk behaviors among youths—United States. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 61, 971–976.
  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2010). HIV/AIDS surveillance report. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/surveillance/resources/reports/2010report/pdf/2010_HIV_Surveillance_Report_vol_22.pdf
  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2012, December). Estimated HIV incidence in the United States, 2007–2010. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report, 17. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/topics/surveillance/resources/reports/#supplemental
  • Chamberlain, M. C., Nichols, S. L., & Chase, C. H. (1991). Pediatric AIDS: Comparative cranial MRI and CT scans. Pediatric Neurology, 7, 357–362. doi:10.1016/0887-8994(91)90066-T
  • Chase, C., Vibbert, M., Pelton, S. I., Pelter, S. I., Coulter, D. L., & Cabral, H. (1995). Early neurodevelopmental growth in children with vertically transmitted human immunodeficiency virus infection. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 149, 850–855. doi:10.1001/archpedi.1995.02170210024004
  • Chenneville, T., Sibille, K., Lujan-Zilbermann, J., Rodriguez, C., Brown, M., & Emmanuel, P. (2010). Medical decisional capacity among children with HIV. AIDS Care, 22, 1359–1366. doi:10.1080/09540121003758499
  • Chiriboga, C. A., Fleishman, S., Champion, S., Gaye-Robinson, L., & Abrams, E. J. (2005). Incidence and prevalence of HIV encephalopathy in children with HIV infection receiving highly active anti-retroviral therapy (HAART). The Journal of Pediatrics, 146, 402–407. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2004.10.021
  • Churchill, M., Gorry, P. R., Cowley, D., Lal, L., Sonza, S., Purcell, D. F. J., … Wesselingh, S. L. (2006). Use of laser capture microdissection to detect integrated HIV-1 DNA in macrophages and astrocytes from autopsy brain tissues. Journal of Neurovirology, 12, 146–152. doi:10.1080/13550280600748946
  • Civitello, L. A., Wolters, P., Serchuck, L., Wood, L., Jankelevich, S., Yarchoan, R., & Brouwers, P. (2000). Long-term effect of protease inhibitors on neuropsychological function and neuroimaging in pediatric HIV disease. Annals of Neurology, 48, 513.
  • Cooper, E. R., Hanson, C., Diaz, C., Mendez, H., Abboud, R., Nugent, R., … Smeriglio, V. (1998). Encephalopathy and progression of human immunodeficiency virus disease in a cohort of children with perinatally acquired human immunodeficiency virus infection. The Journal of Pediatrics, 132, 808–812. doi:10.1016/S0022-3476(98)70308-7
  • Coplan, J., Contello, K. A., Cunningham, C. K., Weiner, L. B., Dye, T. D., Roberge, L., … Kirkwood, K. (1998). Early language development in children exposed to or infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Pediatrics, 102(1), e8. doi:10.1542/peds.102.1.e8
  • Costello, E. J., Compton, S. N., Keeler, G., & Angold, A. (2003). Relationships between poverty and psychopathology: A natural experiment. JAMA, 290, 2023–2029. doi:10.1001/jama.290.15.2023
  • Culnane, M., Fowler, M., Lee, S. S., McSherry, G., Brady, M., O’Donnell, K., & Oleske, J. (1999). Lack of long-term effects of in utero exposure to zidovudine among uninfected children born to HIV-infected women. JAMA, 281, 151–157. doi:10.1001/jama.281.2.151
  • Cysique, L. A., Maruff, P., & Brew, B. J. (2006). Valproic acid is associated with cognitive decline in HIV-infected individuals: A clinical observational study. BMC Neurology, 6, 42. doi:10.1186/1471-2377-6-42
  • Davis, L. E., Hjelle, B. L., Miller, V. E., Palmer, D. L., Llewellyn, A. L., Merlin, T. L., … Wiley, C. A. (1992). Early viral brain invasion in iatrogenic human immunodeficiency virus infection. Neurology, 42, 1736–1736. doi:10.1212/WNL.42.9.1736
  • DeCarli, C., Civitello, L. A., Brouwers, P., & Pizzo, P. A. (1993). The prevalence of computed tomographic abnormalities of the cerebrum in 100 consecutive children symptomatic with the human immune deficiency virus. Annals of Neurology, 34, 198–205. doi:10.1002/ana.410340216
  • Deeks, S. (2011). HIV Infection, inflammation, immunosenescence, and aging. Annual Review of Medicine, 62, 141–155. doi:10.1146/annurev-med-042909-093756
  • Divi, R. L., Einem, T. L., Leonard Fletcher, S. L., Shockley, M. E., Kuo, M. M., St Claire, M. C., … Poirier M. C. (2010). Progressive mitochondrial compromise in brains and livers of primates exposed in utero to nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs). Toxicological Sciences, 118, 191–201. doi:10.1093/toxsci/kfq235
  • Divi, R. L., Leonard, S. L., Kuo, M. M., Nagashima, K., Thamire, C., St. Claire, M. C., … Poirier, M. C. (2007). Transplacentally exposed human and monkey newborn infants show similar evidence of nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor-induced mitochondrial toxicity. Environmental and Molecular Mutagenesis, 48, 201–209. doi:10.1002/em.20201
  • Dobbs, M. R., & Berger, J. R. (2009). Stroke in HIV infection and AIDS. Expert Review of Cardiovascular Therapy, 7, 1263–1271. doi:10.1586/erc.09.72
  • Dowshen, N., & D’Angelo, L. (2011). Health care transition for youth living with HIV/AIDS. Pediatrics, 128, 762–771. doi:10.1542/peds.2011-0068
  • Drotar, D., Crawford, P., & Bonner, M. (2010). Collaborative decision-making and promoting treatment adherence in pediatric chronic illness. Patient Intelligence, 2, 1–7. doi:10.2147/PI.S8820
  • Dunn, L., & Dunn, L. (1997). Peabody picture vocabulary test (3rd ed.). Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
  • Dutra, R., Forehand, R., Armistead, L., Brody, G., Morse, E., Morse, P. S., & Clark, L. (2000). Child resiliency in inner-city families affected by HIV: The role of family variables. Behavioral Research Theory, 38, 1–86.
  • Elkington, K. S., Robbins, R. N., Bauermeister, J. A., Abrams, E. J., McKay, M., & Mellins, C. A. (2011). Mental health in youth infected with and affected by HIV: The role of caregiver HIV. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 36, 360–373. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsq094
  • Elliott-DeSorbo, D. K., Martin, S., & Wolters, P. L. (2009). Stressful life events and their relationship to psychological and medical functioning in children and adolescents with HIV infection. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 52, 364–370. doi:10.1097/QAI.0b013e3181b73568
  • Ellis, R. J., Badiee, J., Vaida, F., Letendre, S., Heaton, R. K., Clifford, D.,… The CHARTER Group. (2011). CD4 nadir is a predictor of HIV neurocognitive impairment in the era of combination antiretroviral therapy. AIDS, 25, 1747–1751. doi:10.1097/QAD.0b013e32834a40cd
  • Ellis, R. J., Calero, P., & Stockin, M. D. (2009). HIV infection and the central nervous system: A primer. Neuropsychology Review, 19, 144–151. doi:10.1007/s11065-009-9094-1
  • Ellis, R., Langford, D., & Masliah, E. (2007). HIV and antiretroviral therapy in the brain: Neuronal injury and repair. Neuroscience, 8, 33–44.
  • Epstein, L. G., Sharer, L. R., Oleske, J. M., Connor, E. M., Goudsmit, J., Bagdon, L., & Koenigsberger, M. R. (1986). Neurologic manifestations of human immunodeficiency virus infection in children. Pediatrics, 78, 678–687.
  • Farley, J. J., Montepiedra, G., Storm, D., Sirois, P. A., Malee, K., Garvie, P.,… The Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group (PACTG) P1042S Team. (2008). Assessment of adherence to antiretroviral therapy in perinatally HIV-infected children and youth using self-report measures and pill count. Journal of Developmental Behavioral Pediatrics, 29, 377–384. doi:10.1097/DBP.0b013e3181856d22
  • Foster, C., & Fidler, S. (2010). Optimizing antiretroviral therapy in adolescents with perinatally acquired HIV-1 infection. Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy, 8(12), 1403–1416.
  • Foster, S. B., Lu, M., Glaze, D. G., Reuben, J. M., Harris, L. L., Cohen, E. N., … Shearer W. T. (2012). Associations of cytokines, sleep patterns, and neurocognitive function in youth with HIV infection. Clinical Immunology, 144, 13–23. doi:10.1016/j.clim.2012.04.004
  • Franklin, S., Lim, H. J., & Havens, P. L. (2007). Longitudinal behavioral and academic adjustment in children with HIV infection. Journal of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings, 14, 335–343. doi:10.1007/s10880-007-9088-1
  • Franklin, S., Lim, H. J., Rennie, K. M., Eastwood, D., Cuene, B., & Havens, P. L. (2005). Longitudinal intellectual assessment of children with HIV infection. Journal of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings, 12, 367–376. doi:10.1007/s10880-005-7823-z
  • Gabis, L., Belman, A., Huang, W., Milazzo, M., & Nachman, S. (2006). Clinical and imaging study of human immunodeficiency virus-1-infected youth receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy: Pilot study using magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Journal of Child Neurology, 21, 486–490.
  • Gartner, S. (2000). AIDS:HIV infection and dementia. Science, 287, 602–604. doi:10.1126/science.287.5453.602
  • Garvie, P. A., Zeldow, B., Malee, K., Nichols, S. L., Smith, R. A., Wilkins, M. L., … Pediatric HIVAIDS Cohort Study (PHACS). (2014). Discordance of cognitive and academic achievement outcomes in youth with perinatal HIV exposure. The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal.
  • Gilliam, P. P., Ellen, J. M., Leonard, L., Kinsman, S., Jevitt, C. M., & Straub, D. M. (2011). Transition of adolescents with HIV to adult care: Characteristics and current practices of the adolescent trials network for HIV/AIDS interventions. Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 22(4), 283–294.
  • Gongvatana, A., Schweinsburg, B. C., Taylor, M. J., Theilmann, R. J., Letendre, S. L., Alhassoon, O. M., … Grant, I. (2009). White matter tract injury and cognitive impairment in human immunodeficiency virus-infected individuals. Journal of NeuroVirology, 15, 187–195. doi:10.1080/13550280902769756
  • Gonzalez-Scarano, F., & Martin-Garcia, J. (2005). The neuropathogenesis of AIDS. Nature Reviews. Immunology, 5, 69–81.
  • Gortmaker, S. L., Walker, D. K., Weitzman, M., & Sobol, A. M. (1990). Chronic conditions, socioeconomic risks, and behavioral problems in children and adolescents. Pediatrics, 85, 267–276.
  • Gosling, A. S., Burns, J., & Hirst, F. (2004). Children with HIV in the UK: A longitudinal study of adaptive and cognitive functioning. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 9, 25–37. doi:10.1177/1359104504039168
  • Grovit-Ferbas, K., & Harris-White, M. E. (2010). Thinking about HIV: The intersection of virus, neuroinflammation and cognitive dysfunction. Immunologic Research, 48, 40–58. doi:10.1007/s12026-010-8166-x
  • Haberer, J., & Mellins, C. A. (2009). Pediatric adherence to HIV antiretroviral therapy. Current HIV/AIDS Reports, 6, 194–200. doi:10.1007/s11904-009-0026-8
  • Hanson, I. C., Antonelli, T. A., Sperling, R. S., Oleske, J. M., Cooper, E., Culnane, M., … Shapiro D. E. (1999). Lack of tumors in infants with perinatal HIV-1 exposure and fetal/neonatal exposure to zidovudine. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology, 20, 463–467. doi:10.1097/00042560-199904150-00008
  • Hazra, R., Siberry, G., & Mofenson, L. (2010). Growing up with HIV: Children, adolescents and young adults with perinatally acquired HIV infection. Annual Review of Medicine, 61, 169–185. doi:10.1146/annurev.med.050108.151127
  • Heaton, R. K., Franklin, D. R., Ellis, R. J., McCutchan, J. A., Letendre, S. L., LeBlanc, S., & Grant, I. (2010). HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders before and during the era of combination antiretroviral therapy: Differences in rates, nature, and predictors. Journal of Neurovirology, 0, 1–46.
  • Hemelaar, J., Gouws, E., Ghys, P. D., & Osmanov, S. (2006). Global and regional distribution of HIV-1 genetic subtypes and recombinants in 2004. AIDS, 20, W13–W23. doi:10.1097/01.aids.0000247564.73009.bc
  • Holmes, J., Gathercole, S. E., Place, M., Dunning, D. L., Hilton, K. A., & Elliot, J. G. (2010). Working memory deficits can be overcome: Impacts of training and medication on working memory in children with ADHD. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24, 827–836. doi:10.1002/acp.1589
  • Izbudak, I., Chalian, M., Hutton, N., Baskaran, V., Jordan, L., Siberry, G. K., … Agwu, A. L. (2013). Perinatally HIV-infected youth presenting with acute stroke: Progression/evolution of ischemic disease on neuroimaging. Journal of Neuroradiology, 40, 172–180. doi:10.1016/j.neurad.2012.08.001
  • Jeena, P. M., Pillay, P., Pillay, T., & Coovadia, H. M. (2002). Impact of HIV-1 co-infection on presentation and hospital-related mortality in children with culture proven pulmonary tuberculosis in Durban, South Africa. International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 6, 672–678.
  • Jeremy, R. J., Kim, S., Nozyce, M., Nachman, S., McIntosh, K., Pelton, S. I., & Stanley, K. (2005). Neuropsychological functioning and viral load in stable antiretroviral therapy-experienced HIV-infected children. Pediatrics, 115, 380–387. doi:10.1542/peds.2004-1108
  • Kang, E., Mellins, C. A., Dolezal, C., Elkington, K. S., & Abrams, E. J. (2011). Disadvantaged neighborhood influences on depression and anxiety in youth with perinatally acquired human immunodeficiency virus: How life stressors matter. Journal of Community Psychology, 39, 956–971. doi:10.1002/jcop.20483
  • Kang, E., Mellins, C. A., Ng, W. Y. K., Robinson, L. G., & Abrams, E. J. (2008). Standing between two worlds in Harlem: A developmental psychopathology perspective of perinatally acquired human immunodeficiency virus and adolescence. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 29, 227–237. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2008.02.001
  • Kapetanovic, S., Leister, E., Nichols, S., Miller, T., Tassiopoulos, K., Hazra, R., … Williams, P. L. (2010). Relationships between markers of vascular dysfunction and neurodevelopmental outcomes in perinatally HIV-infected youth. AIDS, 24, 1481–1491. doi:10.1097/QAD.0b013e32833a241b
  • Kapetanovic, S., Wiegand, R. E., Dominguez, K., Blumberg, D., Bohannon, B., Wheeling, J., & Rutstein, R. (2011). Associations of medically documented psychiatric diagnoses and risky health behaviors in highly active antiretroviral therapy-experienced perinatally HIV-Infected youth. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 25, 493–501. doi:10.1089/apc.2011.0107
  • Keller, M. A., Venkatraman, T. N., Thomas, A., Deveikis, A., LoPresti, C., Hayes, J., … Chang, L. (2004). Altered neurometabolite development in HIV-infected children: Correlation with neuropsychological tests. Neurology, 62, 1810–1817. doi:10.1212/01.WNL.0000125492.57419.25
  • Kirmse, B., Baumgart, S., & Rakhmanina, N. (2013). Metabolic and mitochondrial effects of antiretroviral drug exposure in pregnancy and postpartum: Implications for fetal and future health. Seminars in Fetal & Neonatal Medicine, 18, 48–55. doi:10.1016/j.siny.2012.10.005
  • Klingberg, T., Fernell, E., Olesen, P. J., Johnson, M., Gustafsson, P., Dahlström, K., … Westerberg, H. (2005). Computerized training of working memory in children with ADHD - A randomized, controlled trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 44, 177–186. doi:10.1097/00004583-200502000-00010
  • Knight, W. G., Mellins, C. A., Levenson Jr, R. L., Arpadi, S. M., & Kairam, R. (2000). Brief report: Effects of pediatric HIV infection on mental and psychomotor development. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 25, 583–587. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/25.8.583
  • Kobin, A. B., & Sheth, N. U. (2011). Levels of adherence required for virologic suppression among newer antiretroviral medications. The Annals of Pharmacotherapy, 45, 372–379. doi:10.1345/aph.1P587
  • Koekkoek, S., de Sonneville, L. M. J., Wolfs, T. F. W., Licht, R., & Geelen, S. P. M. (2008). Neurocognitive function profile in HIV-infected school-age children. European Journal of Paediatric Neurology, 12, 290–297. doi:10.1016/j.ejpn.2007.09.002
  • Koenig, L. J., Nesheim, S., & Abramowitz, S. (2011). Adolescents with perinatally acquired HIV: Emerging behavioral and health needs for long-term survivors. Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology, 23, 321–327. doi:10.1097/GCO.0b013e32834a581b
  • Kranzler, E. M., Shaffer, D., Wasserman, G., & Davies, M. (1990). Early childhood bereavement. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 513–520. doi:10.1097/00004583-199007000-00002
  • Kure, K., Llena, J. F., Lyman, W. D., Soeiro, R., Weidenheim, K. M., Hirano, A., & Dickson, D. W. (1991). Human immunodeficiency virus-1 infection of the nervous system: An autopsy study of 268 adult, pediatric, and fetal brains. Human Pathology, 22, 700–710. doi:10.1016/0046-8177(91)90293-X
  • Laughton, B., Cornell, M., Grove, D., Kidd, M., Springer, P. E., Dobbels, E., … Cotton, M. F. (2012). Early antiretroviral therapy improves neurodevelopmental outcomes in infants. AIDS, 26, 1685–1690. doi:10.1097/QAD.0b013e328355d0ce
  • Lee, B., Chhabra, M., & Oberdorfer, P. (2011). Depression among vertically HIV-infected adolescents in northern Thailand. Journal of the International Association of Physicians in AIDS Care (JIAPAC), 10, 89–96. doi:10.1177/1545109710397892
  • Letourneau, E. J., Ellis, D. A., Naar-King, S., Chapman, J. E., Cunningham, P. B., & Fowler, S. (2013). Multisystemic therapy for poorly adherent youth with HIV: Results from a pilot randomized controlled trial. AIDS Care: Psychological and Socio-Medical Aspects of AIDS/HIV, 25, 507–514. doi:10.1080/09540121.2012.715134
  • Lindsey, J. C., Malee, K. M., Brouwers, P., & Hughes, M. D. (2007). Neurodevelopmental functioning in HIV-infected infants and young children before and after the introduction of Protease Inhibitor-based highly active antiretroviral therapy. Pediatrics, 119, e681–e693. doi:10.1542/peds.2006-1145
  • Llorente, A., Brouwers, P., Thompson, B., Cheng, I., Macmillan, C., LaRussa, P., … Chase C. (2006). Effects of polymorphisms of chemokine receptors on neurodevelopment and the onset of encephalopathy in children with perinatal HIV-1 infection. Applied Neuropsychology, 13, 180–189. doi:10.1207/s15324826an1303_6
  • Llorente, A. M., Brouwers, P., Leighty, R., Malee, K., Smith, R., Harris, L., … Chase, C. (2014). An analysis of select emerging executive skills in perinatally HIV-1-infected children. Applied Neuropsychology: Child, 3, 10–25. doi:10.1080/21622965.2012.686853
  • Logie, C., & Gadalla, T. M. (2009). Meta-analysis of health and demographic correlates of stigma towards people living with HIV. AIDS Care, 21, 742–753. doi:10.1080/09540120802511877
  • MacDonell, K., Naar-King, S., Huszti, H., & Belzer, M. (2013). Barriers to medication adherence in behaviorally and perinatally infected youth living with HIV. AIDS and Behavior, 17, 86–93. doi:10.1007/s10461-012-0364-1
  • MacGregor, T. R. (2011). “Forgiving” a missed daily dose. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses, 27, 345–346. doi:10.1089/aid.2010.0273
  • Maggiolo, F., Ravasio, L., Ripamonti, D., Gregis, G., Quinzan, G., Arici, C., … Suter, F. (2005). Similar adherence rates favor different virologic outcomes for patients treated with nonnucleoside analogues or protease inhibitors. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 40, 158–163. doi:10.1086/426595
  • Malee, K., Williams, P. L., Montepiedra, G., McCabe, M., Nichols, S., Sirois, P. A., & Kammerer, B. (2011). Medication adherence in children and adolescents with HIV infection: Associations with behavioral impairment. AIDS Patient Care STDs, 25, 191–200.
  • Malee, K., Williams, P. L., Montepiedra, G., Nichols, S., Sirois, P. A., Storm, D., … Kammerer, B. (2009). The role of cognitive functioning in medication adherence of children and adolescents with HIV infection. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 34, 164–175. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsn068
  • Malee, K. M., Tassiopoulos, K., Huo, Y., Siberry, G., Williams, P. L., Hazra, R.,… The Pediatric HIV/AIDS Cohort Study Team. (2011). Mental health functioning among children and adolescents with perinatal HIV infection and perinatal HIV exposure. AIDS Care, 23, 1533–1544. doi:10.1080/09540121.2011.575120
  • Mani, A., Mullainathan, S., Shafir, E., & Zhao, J. (2013). Poverty impedes cognitive function. Science, 341, 976–980. doi:10.1126/science.1238041
  • Marón, G., Gaur, A. H., & Flynn, P. M. (2010). Antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected infants and children. The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 29, 360–363. doi:10.1097/INF.0b013e3181d616d8
  • Martin, S., Elliott-DeSorbo, D. K., Wolters, P. L., Toledo-Tamula, M. A., Roby, G., Zeichner, S., & Wood, L. V. (2007). Patient, caregiver and regimen characteristics associated with adherence to highly active antiretroviral therapy among HIV-infected children and adolescents. The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 26, 61–67. doi:10.1097/01.inf.0000250625.80340.48
  • Martin, S., Wolters, P. L., Toledo-Tamula, M. A., Zeichner, S. L., Hazra, R., & Civitello, L. (2006). Cognitive functioning in school-aged children with vertically acquired HIV infection being treated with highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). Developmental Neuropsychology, 30, 633–657. doi:10.1207/s15326942dn3002_1
  • Maturo, D., Powell, A., Major-Wilson, H., Sanchez, K., De Santis, J. P., & Friedman, L. B. (2011). Development of a protocol for transitioning adolescents with HIV infection to adult care. Journal of Pediatric Health Care, 25, 16–23. doi:10.1016/j.pedhc.2009.12.005
  • McCoig, C., Castrejón, M. M., Castaño, E., de Suman, O., Báez, C., Redondo, W., … Ramilo, O. (2002). Effect of combination antiretroviral therapy on cerebrospinal fluid HIV RNA, HIV resistance, and clinical manifestations of encephalopathy. The Journal of Pediatrics, 141, 36–44. doi:10.1067/mpd.2002.125007
  • McKenna, M. T., & Hu, X. (2007). Recent trends in the incidence and morbidity that are associated with perinatal human immunodeficiency virus infection in the United States. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 197(3), SS10–S16. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2007.02.032
  • Mellins, C. A., Brackis-Cott, E., Dolezal, C., & Abrams, E. (2004). The role of psychosocial and family factors in adherence to antiretroviral treatment in Human Immunodeficiency Virus-infected children. The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 23, 1035–1041. doi:10.1097/01.inf.0000143646.15240.ac
  • Mellins, C. A., & Malee, K. M. (2013). Understanding the mental health of youth living with perinatal HIV infection: Lessons learned and current challenges. Journal of the International AIDS Society, 16, 1–19. doi:10.7448/IAS.16.1.18593
  • Mellins, C. A., Elkington, K. S., Leu, C. S., Santamaria, E. K., Dolezal, C., Wiznia, A., … Abrams, E. J. (2012). Prevalence and change in psychiatric disorders among perinatally HIV-infected and HIV-exposed youth. AIDS Care, 24(8), 953–962.
  • Mellins, C. A., Tassiopoulos, K., Malee, K., Moscicki, A., Patton, D., Smith, R., … Seage III, G. R. (2011). Behavioral health risks in perinatally HIV-exposed youth: Co-occurrence of sexual and drug use behavior, mental health problems, and non-adherence to antiretroviral treatment. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 25, 413–422. doi:10.1089/apc.2011.0025
  • Melrose, R. J., Tinaz, S., Boer Castelo, J. M., Courtney, M. G., & Stern, C. E. (2008). Compromised fronto-striatal functioning in HIV: An fMRI investigation of semantic event sequencing. Behavioural Brain Research, 188, 337–347. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2007.11.021
  • Mintz, M. (1996). Neurological and developmental problems in pediatric HIV infection. Journal of Nutrition, 126, 2663S–2673S.
  • Mitchell, C. D. (2006). HIV-1 encephalopathy among perinatally infected children: Neuropathogenesis and response to highly active antiretroviral therapy. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 12, 216–222. doi:10.1002/mrdd.20111
  • Mofenson, L., & Cotton, M. F. (2013). The challenges of success: Adolescents with perinatal HIV infection. Journal of the International AIDS Society, 16, 18650.
  • Mofenson, L. M., & Munderi, P. (2002). Safety of antiretroviral prophylaxis of perinatal transmission for HIV-infected pregnant women and their infants. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 30, 200–215. doi:10.1097/00042560-200206010-00010
  • Murphy, D. A., & Marelich, W. D. (2008). Resiliency in young children whose mothers are living with HIV/AIDS. AIDS Care, 20, 284–291. doi:10.1080/09540120701660312
  • Naar-King, S., Montepiedra, G., Garvie, P., Kammerer, B., Malee, K., Sirois, P. A.,… The PACTG P1042s Team. (2013). Social ecological predictors of longitudinal HIV treatment adherence in youth with perinatally acquired HIV. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 38, 664–674. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jst017
  • Nachman, S., Chernoff, M., Williams, P., Hodge, J., Heston, J., & Gadow, K. D. (2012). Human immunodeficiency virus disease severity, psychiatric symptoms, and functional outcomes in perinatally infected youth. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 166(6), 528–535.
  • Nagarajan, R., Sarma, M. K., Thomas, M. A., Chang, L., Natha, U., Wright, M., … Keller, M. A. (2012). Neuropsychological function and cerebral metabolites in HIV-infected youth. Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology, 7, 981–990. doi:10.1007/s11481-012-9407-7
  • Nichols, S. L., Brummel, S., Smith, R., Hunter, S., Garvie, P., Malee, K., & Chernoff, M. C. for the Pediatric HIV/AIDS Cohort Study (PHACS). (N.d.). Executive functioning in children and adolescents with perinatal HIV exposure and/or infection. Manuscript in preparation.
  • Nozyce, M. L., Huo, Y., Williams, P. L., Kapetanovic, S., Hazra, R., Nichols, S., … The Pediatric HIV/AIDS Cohort Study (PHACS). (2013). Safety of in utero and neonatal ARV exposure: Cognitive and academic outcomes in HIV-exposed, uninfected children age 5–13 years. Manuscript submitted for publication.
  • Nozyce, M. L., Lee, S. S., Wiznia, A., Nachman, S., Mofenson, L. M., Smith, M. E., & Pelton, S. (2006). A behavioral and cognitive profile of clinically stable HIV-infected children. Pediatrics, 117, 763–770. doi:10.1542/peds.2005-0451
  • Orban, L. A., Stein, R., Koenig, L. J., Conner, L. C., Rexhouse, E. L., Lewis, J. V., & Lagrange, R. (2010). Coping strategies of adolescents living with HIV: Disease-specific stressors and responses. AIDS Care, 22, 420–430. doi:10.1080/09540120903193724
  • Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. (2013, February 12). Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-1-infected adults and adolescents. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved from http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/lvguidelines/AdultandAdolescentGL.pdf
  • Patel, K., Ming, X., Williams, P. L., Robertson, K. R., Oleske, J. M., Seage, G. R. III, & The International Maternal Pediatric Adolescent AIDS Clinical Trials 219/219C Study Team (2009). Impact of HAART and CNS-penetrating antiretroviral regimens on HIV encephalopathy among perinatally infected children and adolescents. AIDS, 23, 1893–1901. doi:10.1097/QAD.0b013e32832dc041
  • Paterson, D. L., Swindells, S., Mohr, J., Brester, M., Vergis, E. N., Squier, C., & Singh, N. (2000). Adherence to protease inhibitor therapy and outcomes in patients with HIV infection. Annals of Internal Medicine, 133, 21–30. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-133-1-200007040-00004
  • Patsalides, A. D., Wood, L. V., Atac, G. K., Sandifer, E., Butman, J. A., & Patronas, N. J. (2002). Cerebrovascular disease in HIV-infected pediatric patients: Neuroimaging findings. American Journal of Roentgenology, 179, 999–1003. doi:10.2214/ajr.179.4.1790999
  • Pavlakis, S. G., Lu, D., Frank, Y., Wiznia, A., Eidelberg, D., Barnett, T., & Hyman, R. (1998). Brain lactate and N-acetlyaspartate in pediatric AIDS encephalopathy. American Journal of Neuroradiology, 19, 383–385.
  • Pearlstein, S. L., Mellins, C. A., Dolezal, C., Elkington, K. S., Santamaria, E. K., Leu, C. S., … Abrams, E. J. (2014). Youth in transition: Life skills among perinatally HIV-infected and HIV-exposed adolescents. Journal of Pediatric Psychology. 39, 294–305. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jst077
  • Pizzo, P. A., Eddy, J., Falloon, J., Balis, F. M., Murphy, R. F., Moss, H., … Poplack, D. G. (1988). Effect of continuous intravenous infusion of zidovudine (AZT) in children with symptomatic HIV infection. New England Journal of Medicine, 319(14), 889–896.
  • Perrin, J. M., Gnanasekaran, S., & Delahaye, J. (2012). Psychological aspects of chronic health conditions. Pediatrics in Review, 33, 99–109. doi:10.1542/pir.33-3-99
  • Poirier, M. C., Divi, R. L., Al-Harthi, L., Olivero, O. A., Nguyen, V., Walker, B.,… The Women and Infants Transmission Study (WITS) Group. (2003). Long-term mitochondrial toxicity in HIV-uninfected infants born to HIV-infected mothers. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 33, 175–183. doi:10.1097/00126334-200306010-00010
  • Poirier, M. C., Olivero, O. A., Walker, D. M., & Walker, V. E. (2004). Perinatal genotoxicity and carcinogenicity of antiretroviral nucleoside analog drugs. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 199, 151–161. doi:10.1016/j.taap.2003.11.034
  • Pollack, H., Kuchuk, A., Cowan, L., Hacimamutoglu, S., Glasberg, H., David, R., & Oberfield, S. (1996). Neurodevelopment, growth, and viral load in HIV-infected infants. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 10, 298–312. doi:10.1006/brbi.1996.0026
  • Rao, D., Kekwaletswe, T. C., Hosek, S., Martinez, J., & Rodriguez, F. (2007). Stigma and social barriers to medication adherence with urban youth living with HIV. AIDS Care: Psychological and Socio-Medical Aspects of AIDS/HIV, 19, 28–33. doi:10.1080/09540120600652303
  • Rao, V. R., Sas, A. R., Eugenin, E. A., Siddappa, N. B., Bimonte-Nelson, H., Berman, J. W., … Prasad, V. R. (2008). HIV-1 clade-specific differences in the induction of neuropathogenesis. Journal of Neuroscience, 28, 10010–10016. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2955-08.2008
  • Rapoff, M. A. (2011). Adherence to pediatric medical regimens. New York, NY: Springer Science + Business Media, LLC.
  • Reisner, S. L., Mimiaga, M. J., Skeer, M., Perkovich, B., Johnson, C. V., & Safren, S. A. (2009). A review of HIV antiretroviral adherence and intervention studies among HIV-infected youth. Topics in HIV Medicine: A Publication of the International AIDS Society, 17, 14.
  • Reynolds, C. R., & Kamphaus, R. W. (2004). BASC 2, Behavior assessment system for children (2nd ed.). Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
  • Rice, M. L., Buchanan, A. L., Siberry, G. K., Malee, K. M., Zeldow, B., Frederick, T., & Williams, P. L. (2012). Language impairment in children perinatally infected with HIV compared to children who were HIV-exposed and uninfected. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 33(2), 112–123.
  • Rotheram-Borus, M., Leonard, N. R., Lightfoot, M., Franzke, L. H., Tottenham, N., & Lee, S. (2002). Picking up the pieces: Caregivers of adolescents bereaved by parental AIDS. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 7, 115–124. doi:10.1177/1359104502007001009
  • Rotheram-Borus, M. J., Swendeman, D., Lee, S. J., Li, L., Amani, B., & Nartey, M. (2011). Interventions for families affected by HIV. Translational Behavioral Medicine, 1, 313–326. doi:10.1007/s13142-011-0043-1
  • Rudy, B. J., Murphy, D. A., Harris, D. R., Muenz, L., Ellen, J., & The Adolescent Trials Network for HIV/AIDS Interventions. (2010). Prevalence and interactions of patient-related risks for nonadherence to antiretroviral therapy among perinatally infected youth in the United States. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 24, 97–104. doi:10.1089/apc.2009.0198
  • Ruel, M. T., Garrett, J. L., Hawkes, C., & Cohen, M. J. (2010). The food, fuel, and financial crises affect the urban and rural poor disproportionately: A review of the evidence. The Journal of nutrition, 140, 170S–176S. doi:10.3945/jn.109.110791
  • Rutter, M. (1996). Children of sick parents. London: Oxford University Press.
  • Safriel, Y. I., Haller, J. O., Lefton, D. R., & Obedian, R. (2000). Imaging of the brain in the HIV-positive child. Pediatric Radiology, 30, 725–732. doi:10.1007/s002470000338
  • Salvan, A. M., Lamoureux, S., Michel, G., Confort-Gouny, S., Cozzone, P. J., & Vion-Dury, J. (1998). Localized proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy of the brain in children infected with human immunodeficiency virus with and without encephalopathy. Pediatric Research, 44, 755–762. doi:10.1203/00006450-199811000-00019
  • Santamaria, E. K., Dolezal, C., Marhefka, S. L., Hoffman, S., Ahmed, Y., Elkington, K., & Mellins, C. A. (2011). Psychosocial implications of HIV serostatus disclosure to youth with perinatally acquired HIV. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 25, 257–264. doi:10.1089/apc.2010.0161
  • Schieffelin, J. S., Williams, P. L., Djokic, D., Anderson, J. P., Nachman, S., Oleske, J. M., … Van Dyke, R. B. (2013). Central nervous system vasculopathy in HIV-infected children enrolled in the Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group 219/219C study. Journal of the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society, 2, 50–56. doi:10.1093/jpids/pis095
  • Sei, S., Boler, A. M., Nguyen, G. T., Stewart, S. K., Yang, Q. E., Edgerly, M., … Venzon, D. J. (2001). Protective effect of CCR5 Δ32 heterozygosity is restricted by SDF-1 genotype in children with HIV-1 infection. AIDS, 15, 1343–1352. doi:10.1097/00002030-200107270-00003
  • Semel, E., Wiig, E. H., & Secord, W. A. (2003). Clinical evaluation of language fundamentals (4th ed.). San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.
  • Sengupta, S., Banks, B., Jonas, D., Miles, M.S ., & Smith, G. C. (2011). HIV interventions to reduce HIV/AIDS stigma: A systematic review. AIDS Behavior, 15, 1075–1087. doi:10.1007/s10461-010-9847-0
  • Sevigny, J. J., Albert, S. M., McDermott, M. P., McArthur, J. C., Sacktor, N., Conant, K., … Marder K. (2004). Evaluation of HIV RNA and markers of immune activation as predictors of HIV-associated dementia. Neurology, 63, 2084–2090. doi:10.1212/01.WNL.0000145763.68284.15
  • Shan, L., & Siliciano, R. F. (2013). From reactivation of latent HIV-1 to elimination of the latent reservoir: The presence of multiple barriers to viral eradication. BioEssays, 35, 544–552. doi:10.1002/bies.201200170
  • Shanbhag, M. C., Rutstein, R. M., Zaoutis, T., Zhao, H., Chao, D., & Radcliffe, J. (2005). Neurocognitive functioning in pediatric human immunodeficiency virus infection: Effects of combined therapy. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 159, 651–656. doi:10.1001/archpedi.159.7.651
  • Sharer, L. R. (2005). Neuropathological aspects of HIV-1 infection in children. In H. E. Gendelman, I. Grant, I. P. Everall, S. A. Lipton, & S. Swindells (Eds.), The neurology of AIDS (pp. 659–665). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
  • Sherr, L., Clucas, C., Harding, R., Sibley, E., & Catalan, J. (2011). HIV and depression – A systematic review of interventions. Psychology Health Medicine, 16, 493–527. doi:10.1080/13548506.2011.579990
  • Shuter, J. (2008). Forgiveness of non-adherence to HIV-1 antiretroviral therapy. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 61, 769–773. doi:10.1093/jac/dkn020
  • Simoni, J. M., Montgomery, A., Martin, E., New, M., Demas, P. A., & Rana, S. (2007). Adherence to antiretroviral therapy for pediatric HIV infection: A qualitative systematic review with recommendations for research and clinical management. Pediatrics, 119, e1371–e1383. doi:10.1542/peds.2006-1232
  • Singh, K. K., Barroga, C. F., Hughes, M. D., Chen, J., Raskino, C., McKinney, R. E., & Spector, S. A. (2003). Genetic influence of CCR5, CCR2, and SDF1 variants on Human Immunodeficiency Virus 1 (HIV‐1)–related disease progression and neurological impairment, in children with symptomatic HIV‐1 infection. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 188, 1461–1472. doi:10.1086/379038
  • Sirois, P. A., Huo, Y., Williams, P. L., Malee, K., Garvie, P. A., Kammerer, B.,… The Pediatric HIVAIDS Cohort Study (PHACS) (2013). Safety of perinatal exposure to antiretroviral medications: Developmental outcomes in infants. The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 32, 648–655. doi:10.1097/INF.0b013e318284129a
  • Smith, R., Chernoff, M., Williams, P. L., Malee, K. M., Sirois, P. A., Kammerer, B., … Rutstein, R. (2012). Impact of HIV severity on cognitive and adaptive functioning during childhood and adolescence. The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 31, 592–598. doi:10.1097/INF.0b013e318253844b
  • Smith, R., Malee, K., Charurat, M., Magder, L., Mellins, C. A., Macmillan, C.,… The Women and Infants Transmission Study Group. (2000). Timing of perinatal human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection and rate of neurodevelopment. The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 19, 862–871. doi:10.1097/00006454-200009000-00010
  • Smith, R., Malee, K., Leighty, R., Brouwers, P., Mellins, C., Hittelman, J., & Blasini, I. (2006). Effects of perinatal HIV infection and associated risk factors on cognitive development among young children. Pediatrics, 117, 851–862. doi:10.1542/peds.2005-0804
  • Sperling, R. S., Shapiro, D. E., McSherry, G. D., Britto, P., Cunningham, B. E., Culnane, M., … Delfraissy, J. (1998). Safety of the maternal-infant zidovudine regimen utilized in the Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trial Group 076 Study. AIDS, 12, 1805–1813. doi:10.1097/00002030-199814000-00012
  • Sturdevant, C. B., Dow, A., Jabara, C. B., Joseph, S. B., Schnell, G., Takamune, N., … Douek D. C. (2012). Central nervous system compartmentalization of HIV-1 subtype C variants early and late in infection in young children. PLOS pathogens, 8, e1003094. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1003094
  • Tamula, M. A. T., Wolters, P. L., Walsek, C., Zeichner, S., & Civitello, L. (2003). Cognitive decline with immunologic and virologic stability in four children with human immunodeficiency virus disease. Pediatrics, 112, 679–684. doi:10.1542/peds.112.3.679
  • Tanney, M. R., Naar-King, S., & MacDonnel, K. (2012). Depression and stigma in high-risk youth living with HIV: A multi-site study. Journal of Pediatric Healthcare, 26, 300–305. doi:10.1016/j.pedhc.2011.02.014
  • Tardieu, M., Mayaux, M. J., Seibel, N., Funck-Brentanol, I., Straub, E., Teglas, J. P., & Blanche, S. (1995). Cognitive assessment of school-age children infected with maternally transmitted human immunodeficiency virus type 1. The Journal of Pediatrics, 126, 375–379. doi:10.1016/S0022-3476(95)70451-5
  • Tashima, K. T., & Rana, A. I. (2009). Global incidence and epidemiology of the AIDS pandemic, distribution of HIV subtypes, and epidemiology of hepatitis C infection among HIV-positive individuals. In R. H. Paul, K. T. Tashima, N. C. Sacktor, & V. Valcour (Eds.), HIV and the brain: New challenges in the modern era (pp. 9–16). New York, NY: Human Press.
  • Tepper, V., Farley, J. J., Rothman, M. I., Houck, D. L., Davis, K. F., Collins-Jones, T. L., & Wachtel, R. C. (1998). Neurodevelopmental/neuroradiologic recovery of a child infected with HIV after treatment with combination antiretroviral therapy using the HIV-specific protease inhibitor Ritonavir. Pediatrics, 101, e7. doi:10.1542/peds.101.3.e7
  • Thomaidis, L., Bertou, G., Critselis, E., Spoulou, V., Kafetzis, D. A., & Theodoridou, M. (2010). Cognitive and psychosocial development of HIV pediatric patients receiving highly active anti-retroviral therapy: A case-control study. BMC Pediatrics, 10, 99. doi:10.1186/1471-2431-10-99
  • Torre 3rd, P., Zeldow, B., Hoffman, H. J., Buchanan, A., Siberry, G. K., Rice, M., … Williams, P. L. (2012). Hearing loss in perinatally HIV-infected and HIV-exposed but uninfected children and adolescents. The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 31, 835–841. doi:10.1097/INF.0b013e31825b9524
  • Tyor, W. R., Wesselingh, S. L., Griffin, J. W., McArthur, J. C., & Griffin, D. E. (1995). Unifying hypothesis for the pathogenesis of HIV-associated dementia complex, vacuolar myelopathy, and sensory neuropathy. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 9, 379–388.
  • UNAIDS. (2012). UNAIDS report on the global AIDS epidemic. Retrieved from http://www.unaids.org/en/media/unaids/contentassets/documents/epidemiology/2012/gr2012/20121120_UNAIDS_Global_Report_2012_en.pdf
  • Usitalo, A., Leister, E., Tassiopoulos, K., Allison, S., Malee, K., Paul, M. E., … Mellins, C. A. (2014). Relationship between viral load and self-report measures of medication adherence among youth with perinatal HIV infection. AIDS Care: Psychological and Socio-Medical Aspects of AIDS/HIV. 26, 107–115. doi:10.1080/09540121.2013.802280
  • van Arnhem, L. A., Bunders, M. J., Scherpbier, H. J., Majoie, C. B. L. M., Reneman, L., Frinking, O., … Buch S. J. (2013). Neurologic abnormalities in HIV-1 infected children in the era of combination antiretroviral therapy. PloS ONE, 8, e64398. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0064398
  • Viani, R. M., Araneta, M. R., Deville, J. G., & Spector, S. A. (2004). Decrease in hospitalization and mortality rates among children with perinatally acquired HIV type 1 infection receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 39, 725–731. doi:10.1086/423178
  • Vijayan, T., Benin, A. L., Wagner, K., Romano, S., & Andiman, W. A. (2009). We never thought this would happen: Transitioning care of adolescents with perinatally acquired HIV infection from pediatrics to internal medicine. AIDS Care, 21(10), 1222–1229.
  • Violari, A., Cotton, M. F., Gibb, D. M., Babiker, A. G., Steyn, J., Madhi, S. A., … McIntyre, J. A. (2008). Early antiretroviral therapy and mortality among HIV-infected infants. New England Journal of Medicine, 359, 2233–2244. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa0800971
  • Walker, V. E., & Poirier, M. C. (2007). Special issue on health risks of perinatal exposure to nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors. Environmental and Molecular Mutagenesis, 48, 159–165. doi:10.1002/em.20296
  • Weber, R., Pinheiro Neto, C. D., Miziara, I. D., & Araújo Filho, B. C. (2006). HAART impact on prevalence of chronic otitis media in Brazilian HIV-infected children. Brazilian Journal of Otorhinolaryngology, 72, 509–514.
  • Wechsler, D. (1991). Manual for the Wechsler intelligence scale, for children (3rd ed.). San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.
  • Wiener, L., Battles, H., Ryder, C., & Zobel, M. (2007). Transition from a pediatric HIV intramural clinical research program to adolescent and adult community-based care services: Assessing transition readiness. Social Work in Health Care, 46, 1–19. doi:10.1300/J010v46n01_01
  • Wiener, L., Kohrt, B., Battles, H., & Pao, M. (2011). The HIV experience: Youth identified barriers for transitioning from pediatric to adult care. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 36, 141–154. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsp129
  • Wiener, L., Mellins, C. A., Marhefka, S., & Battles, H. B. (2007). Disclosure of an HIV diagnosis to children: History, current research, and future directions. Journal of Developmental Behavioral Pediatrics, 28, 155–166. doi:10.1097/01.DBP.0000267570.87564.cd
  • Williams, P. L., Leister, E., Chernoff, M., Nachman, S., Morse, E., Di Poalo, V., & Gadow, K. D. (2010). Substance use and its association with psychiatric symptoms in perinatally HIV-infected and HIV-affected adolescents. AIDS Behavior, 14, 1072–1082. doi:10.1007/s10461-010-9782-0
  • Williams, P. L., Marino, M., Malee, K., Brogly, S., Hughes, M. D., & Mofenson, L. (2010). Neurodevelopment and in utero antiretroviral exposure of HIV-exposed uninfected infants. Pediatrics, 125, e250–e260. doi:10.1542/peds.2009-1112
  • Wolters, P., Brouwers, P., Civitello, L., & Moss, H. (1997). Receptive and expressive language function of children with symptomatic HIV infection and relationship with disease parameters: A longitudinal 23-month follow-up study. AIDS, 11, 1135–1144. doi:10.1097/00002030-199709000-00009
  • Wolters, P. L., Brouwers, P., Moss, H. A., & Pizzo, P. (1995). Differential receptive and expressive language functioning of children with symptomatic HIV disease and relation to CT scan brain abnormalities. Pediatrics, 95, 112–119.
  • Wood, S. M., Shah, S. S., Steenhoff, A. P., & Rutstein, R. M. (2009). The impact of AIDS diagnoses on long-term neurocognitive and psychiatric outcomes of surviving adolescents with perinatally acquired HIV. AIDS, 23, 1859–1865. doi:10.1097/QAD.0b013e32832d924f

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.