Differential effects of various progestogens on metabolic risk factors for breast cancer

References

• Viscoli C M, Brass L M, Kernan W N, Sarrel P M, Suissa S, Horwitz R I. A clinical trial of estrogen-replacement therapy after ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 2001; 345: 1243–1249
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stefanick M L, Anderson G L, Margolis K L, Hendrix S L, Rodabough R J, Paskett E D, Lane D S, Hubbell F A, Assaf A R, Sarto G E, et al. Effects of conjugated equine estrogens on breast cancer and mammography screening in postmenopausal women with hysterectomy. J Am Med Assoc 2006; 295: 1647–1657
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ross R K, Paganini-Hill A, Wan P C, Pike M C. Effect of hormone replacement therapy on breast cancer risk: estrogen versus estrogen plus progestin. J Natl Cancer Inst 2000; 92: 328–332
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moorman P G, Kuwabara H, Millikan R C, Newman B. Menopausal hormones and breast cancer in a biracial population. Am J Public Health 2000; 90: 966–971
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen C L, Weiss N S, Newcomb P, Barlow W, White E. Hormone replacement therapy in relation to breast cancer. J Am Med Assoc 2002; 287: 734–741
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Porch J V, Lee I M, Cook N R, Rexrode K M, Burin J E. Estrogen–progestin replacement therapy and breast cancer risk: the Women's Health Study (United States). Cancer Causes Control 2002; 13: 847–854
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiss L K, Burkman R T, Cushing-Haugen K L, Voigt L F, Simon M S, Daling J R, Norman S A, Bernstein L, Ursin G, Marchbanks P A, Strom B L, et al. Hormone replacement therapy regimens and breast cancer risk (1). Obstet Gynecol 2002; 100: 1148–1158
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li C I, Malone K E, Porter P L, Weiss N S, Tang M T, Cushing-Haugen K L, Daling J R. Relationship between long durations and different regimens of hormone therapy and risk of breast cancer. J Am Med Assoc 2003; 289: 3254–3263
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olsson H L, Ingvar C, Bladstrom A. Hormone replacement therapy containing progestins and given continuously increases breast carcinoma risk in Sweden. Cancer 2003; 97: 1387–1392
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beral V. Breast cancer and hormone-replacement therapy in the Million Women Study. Lancet 2003; 362: 419–427
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newcomb P A, Titus-Ernstoff L, Egan K M, Trentham-Dietz A, Baron J A, Storer B E, Willett W C, Stampfer M J. Postmenopausal estrogen and progestin use in relation to breast cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2002; 11: 593–600
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schairer C, Lubin J, Troisi R, Sturgeon S, Brinton L, Hoover R. Menopausal estrogen and estrogen–progestin replacement therapy and breast cancer risk. J Am Med Assoc 2000; 283: 485–491
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen W Y, Manson J E, Hankinson S E, Rosner B, Holmes M D, Willett W C, Colditz G A. Unopposed estrogen therapy and the risk of invasive breast cancer. Arch Intern Med 2006; 166: 1027–1032
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenberg L, Palmer J R, Wise L A, Adams-Campbell L L. A prospective study of female hormone use and breast cancer among black women. Arch Intern Med 2006; 166: 760–765
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee S, Kolonel L, Wilkens L, Wan P, Henderson B, Pike M. Postmenopausal hormone therapy and breast cancer risk: the Multiethnic Cohort. Int J Cancer 2006; 118: 1285–1291
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chlebowski R T, Hendrix S L, Langer R D, Stefanick M L, Gass M, Lane D, Rodabough R J, Gilligan M A, Cyr M G, Thomson C A, et al. Influence of estrogen plus progestin on breast cancer and mammography in healthy postmenopausal women: the Women's Health Initiative Randomized Trial. J Am Med Assoc 2003; 289: 3243–3253
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hulley S, Furberg C, Barrett-Connor E, Cauley J, Grady D, Haskell W, Knopp R, Lowery M, Satterfield S, Schrott H, et al. Noncardiovascular disease outcomes during 6.8 years of hormone therapy: Heart and Estrogen/progestin Replacement Study follow-up (HERS II). J Am Med Assoc 2002; 288: 58–66
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campagnoli C, Clavel-Chapelon F, Kaaks R, Peris C, Berrino F. Progestins and progesterone in hormone replacement therapy and the risk of breast cancer. J. Steroid. Biochem Mol Biol 2005; 96: 95–108
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fournier A, Berrino F, Riboli E, Avenel V, Clavel-Chapelon F. Breast cancer risk in relation to different types of hormone replacement therapy in the E3N-EPIC cohort. Int J Cancer 2005; 114: 448–454
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fournier A, Berrino F, Clavel-Chapelon F. Unequal risks for breast cancer associated with different hormone replacement therapies. Breast Cancer Res Treat Feb 27, 2007, [Epub ahead of print]
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Campagnoli C, Abba C, Ambroggio S, Peris C. Pregnancy, progesterone and progestins in relation to breast cancer risk. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2005; 97: 441–450
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuhl H. Pharmacology of estrogens and progestins: influence of different routes of administration. Climacteric 2005; 8(Suppl 1)S3–S63
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schindler A E, Campagnoli C, Druckmann R, Huber J, Pasqualini J R, Schweppe K W, Thijssen J H. Classification and pharmacology of progestins. Maturitas 2003; 46: S7–S16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaaks R. Nutrition, hormones, and breast cancer: is insulin the missing link?. Cancer Causes Control 1996; 7: 605–625
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bruning P F, Bonfrer J M, van Noord P A, Hart A A, Jong-Bakker M, Nooijen W J. Insulin resistance and breast-cancer risk. Int J Cancer 1992; 52: 511–516
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawlor D A, Smith G D, Ebrahim S. Hyperinsulinaemia and increased risk of breast cancer: findings from the British Women's Heart and Health Study. Cancer Causes Control 2004; 15: 267–275
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malin A, Dai Q, Yu H, Shu X O, Jin F, Gao Y T, Zheng W. Evaluation of the synergistic effect of insulin resistance and insulin-like growth factors on the risk of breast carcinoma. Cancer 2004; 100: 694–700
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muti P, Quattrin T, Grant B J, Krogh V, Micheli A, Schunemann H J, Ram M, Freudenheim J L, Sieri S, Trevisan M, et al. Fasting glucose is a risk factor for breast cancer: a prospective study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2002; 11: 1361–1368
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schairer C, Hill D, Sturgeon S R, Fears T, Pollak M, Mies C, Ziegler R G, Hoover R N, Sherman M E. Serum concentrations of IGF-I, IGFBP-3 and C-peptide and risk of hyperplasia and cancer of the breast in postmenopausal women. Int J Cancer 2004; 108: 773–779
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Del Giudice M E, Fantus I G, Ezzat S, McKeown-Eyssen G, Page D, Goodwin P J. Insulin and related factors in premenopausal breast cancer risk. Breast Cancer Res Treat 1998; 47: 111–120
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jernstrom H, Barrett-Connor E. Obesity, weight change, fasting insulin, proinsulin, C-peptide, and insulin-like growth factor-1 levels in women with and without breast cancer: the Rancho Bernardo Study. J Womens Health Gend Based Med 1999; 8: 1265–1272
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yang G, Lu G, Jin F, Dai Q, Best R, Shu X O, Chen J R, Pan X Y, Shrubsole M, Zheng W. Population-based, case–control study of blood C-peptide level and breast cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2001; 10: 1207–1211
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mink P J, Shahar E, Rosamond W D, Alberg A J, Folsom A R. Serum insulin and glucose levels and breast cancer incidence: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities study. Am J Epidemiol 2002; 156: 349–352
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kaaks R, Lundin E, Rinaldi S, Manjer J, Biessy C, Soderberg S, Lenner P, Janzon L, Riboli E, Berglund G, et al. Prospective study of IGF-I, IGF-binding proteins, and breast cancer risk, in northern and southern Sweden. Cancer Causes Control 2002; 13: 307–316
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Keinan-Boker L, Bueno De Mesquita H B, Kaaks R, Van Gils C H, van Noord P A, Rinaldi S, Riboli E, Seidell J C, Grobbee D E, Peeters P H. Circulating levels of insulin-like growth factor I, its binding proteins -1, -2, -3, C-peptide and risk of postmenopausal breast cancer. Int J Cancer 2003; 106: 90–95
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolf I, Sadetzki S, Catane R, Karasik A, Kaufman B. Diabetes mellitus and breast cancer. Lancet Oncol 2005; 6: 103–111
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verheus M, Peeters P H, Rinaldi S, Dossus L, Biessy C, Olsen A, Tjonneland A, Overvad K, Jeppesen M, Clavel-Chapelon F, et al. Serum C-peptide levels and breast cancer risk: results from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC). Int J Cancer 2006; 119: 659–667
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodwin P J, Ennis M, Pritchard K I, Trudeau M E, Koo J, Madarnas Y, Hartwick W, Hoffman B, Hood N. Fasting insulin and outcome in early-stage breast cancer: results of a prospective cohort study. J Clin Oncol 2002; 20: 42–51
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nestler J E, Jakubowicz D J. Decreases in ovarian cytochrome P450c17 α activity and serum free testosterone after reduction of insulin secretion in polycystic ovary syndrome. N Engl J Med 1996; 335: 617–623
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poretsky L, Kalin M F. The gonadotropic function of insulin. Endocr Rev 1987; 8: 132–141
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pasquali R. Obesity and androgens: facts and perspectives. Fertil Steril 2006; 85: 1319–1340
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thissen J P, Ketelslegers J M, Underwood L E. Nutritional regulation of the insulin-like growth factors. Endocr Rev 1994; 15: 80–101
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaaks R, Lukanova A. Energy balance and cancer: the role of insulin and insulin-like growth factor-I. Proc Nutr Soc 2001; 60: 91–106
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamelers I H, Steenbergh P H. Interactions between estrogen and insulin-like growth factor signaling pathways in human breast tumor cells. Endocr Relat Cancer 2003; 10: 331–345
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Westley B R, May F E. Role of insulin-like growth factors in steroid modulated proliferation. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 1994; 51: 1–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Helle S I. The insulin-like growth factor system in advanced breast cancer. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004; 18: 67–79
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ibrahim Y H, Yee D. Insulin-like growth factor-I and breast cancer therapy. Clin Cancer Res 2005; 11: 944s–950s
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mawson A, Lai A, Carroll J S, Sergio C M, Mitchell C J, Sarcevic B. Estrogen and insulin/IGF-1 cooperatively stimulate cell cycle progression in MCF-7 breast cancer cells through differential regulation of c-Myc and cyclin D1. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2005; 229: 161–173
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Renehan A G, Zwahlen M, Minder C, O'Dwyer S T, Shalet S M, Egger M. Insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I, IGF binding protein-3, and cancer risk: systematic review and meta-regression analysis. Lancet 2004; 363: 1346–1353
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sugumar A, Liu Y C, Xia Q, Koh Y S, Matsuo K. Insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I and IGF-binding protein 3 and the risk of premenopausal breast cancer: a meta-analysis of literature. Int J Cancer 2004; 111: 293–297
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shi R, Yu H, McLarty J, Glass J. IGF-I and breast cancer: a meta-analysis. Int J Cancer 2004; 111: 418–423
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rinaldi S, Peeters P H, Berrino F, Dossus L, Biessy C, Olsen A, Tjonneland A, Overvad K, Clavel-Chapelon F, Boutron-Ruault M C, et al. IGF-I, IGFBP-3 and breast cancer risk in women: The European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC). Endocr Relat Cancer 2006; 13: 593–605
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nachtigall E E. Sex hormone binding globulin and breast cancer risk. Prim Care Update Obstet Gynecol 1999; 6: 39–43
   Google Scholar
• Key T, Appleby P, Barnes I, Reeves G. Endogenous sex hormones and breast cancer in postmenopausal women: reanalysis of nine prospective studies. J Natl Cancer Inst 2002; 94: 606–616
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manjer J, Johansson R, Berglund G, Janzon L, Kaaks R, Agren A, Lenner P. Postmenopausal breast cancer risk in relation to sex steroid hormones, prolactin and SHBG (Sweden). Cancer Causes Control 2003; 14: 599–607
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zeleniuch-Jacquotte A, Shore R E, Koenig K L, Akhmedkhanov A, Afanasyeva Y, Kato I, Kim M Y, Rinaldi S, Kaaks R, Toniolo P. Postmenopausal levels of oestrogen, androgen, and SHBG and breast cancer: long-term results of a prospective study. Br J Cancer 2004; 90: 153–159
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Missmer S A, Eliassen A H, Barbieri R L, Hankinson S E. Endogenous estrogen, androgen, and progesterone concentrations and breast cancer risk among postmenopausal women. J Natl Cancer Inst 2004; 96: 1856–1865
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Micheli A, Muti P, Secreto G, Krogh V, Meneghini E, Venturelli E, Sieri S, Pala V, Berrino F. Endogenous sex hormones and subsequent breast cancer in premenopausal women. Int J Cancer 2004; 112: 312–318
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berrino F, Muti P, Micheli A, Bolelli G, Krogh V, Sciajno R, Pisani P, Panico S, Secreto G. Serum sex hormone levels after menopause and subsequent breast cancer. J. Natl Cancer Inst 1996; 88: 291–296
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fortunati N, Becchis M, Catalano M G, Comba A, Ferrera P, Raineri M, Berta L, Frairia R. Sex hormone-binding globulin, its membrane receptor, and breast cancer: a new approach to the modulation of estradiol action in neoplastic cells. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 1999; 69: 473–479
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Godsland I F. Oestrogens and insulin secretion. Diabetologia 2005; 48: 2213–2220
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaspard U J, Gottal J M, van den Brule F A. Postmenopausal changes of lipid and glucose metabolism: a review of their main aspects. Maturitas 1995; 21: 171–178
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stevenson J C. The metabolic basis for the effects of HRT on coronary heart disease. Endocrine 2004; 24: 239–244
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salpeter S R, Walsh J M, Ormiston T M, Greyber E, Buckley N S, Salpeter E E. Meta-analysis: effect of hormone-replacement therapy on components of the metabolic syndrome in postmenopausal women. Diabetes Obes Metab 2006; 8: 538–554
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andersson B, Mattsson L A, Hahn L, Marin P, Lapidus L, Holm G, Bengtsson B A, Bjorntorp P. Estrogen replacement therapy decreases hyperandrogenicity and improves glucose homeostasis and plasma lipids in postmenopausal women with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997; 82: 638–643
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campagnoli C, Biglia N, Cantamessa C, Lesca L, Lotano M R, Sismondi P. Insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) serum level modifications during transdermal estradiol treatment in postmenopausal women: a possible bimodal effect depending on basal IGF-I values. Gynecol Endocrinol 1998; 12: 259–266
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodman-Gruen D, Barrett-Connor E. Effect of replacement estrogen on insulin-like growth factor-I in postmenopausal women: the Rancho Bernardo Study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1996; 81: 4268–4271
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Campagnoli C, Ambroggio S, Biglia N, Peris C, Sismondi P. Insulin-like growth factor-I and risk of breast cancer [letter]. Lancet 1998; 352: 488–489
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kam G Y, Leung K C, Baxter R C, Ho K K. Estrogens exert route- and dose-dependent effects on insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-binding protein-3 and the acid-labile subunit of the IGF ternary complex. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000; 85: 1918–1922
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carmina E, Lo Dico G, Carollo F, Stanczyk F Z, Lobo R A. Serum IGF-I and binding proteins 1 and 3 in postmenopausal women and the effects of estrogens. Menopause 1996; 3: 85–89
   Google Scholar
• Heald A, Kaushal K, Anderson S, Redpath M, Durrington P N, Selby P L, Gibson M J. Effects of hormone replacement therapy on insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I, IGF-II and IGF binding protein (IGFBP)-1 to IGFBP-4: implications for cardiovascular risk. Gynecol Endocrinol 2005; 20: 176–182
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bellantoni M F, Vittone J, Campfield A T, Bass K M, Harman S M, Blackman M R. Effects of oral versus transdermal estrogen on the growth hormone/insulin-like growth factor I axis in younger and older postmenopausal women: a clinical research center study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1996; 81: 2848–2853
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garnero P, Tsouderos Y, Marton I, Pelissier C, Varin C, Delmas P D. Effects of intranasal 17β-estradiol on bone turnover and serum insulin-like growth factor I in postmenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999; 84: 2390–2397
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cardim H J, Lopes C M, Giannella-Neto D, da Fonseca A M, Pinotti J A. The insulin-like growth factor-I system and hormone replacement therapy. Fertil Steril 2001; 75: 282–287
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Decensi A, Bonanni B, Baglietto L, Guerrieri-Gonzaga A, Ramazzotto F, Johansson H, Robertson C, Marinucci I, Mariette F, Sandri M T, et al. A two-by-two factorial trial comparing oral with transdermal estrogen therapy and fenretinide with placebo on breast cancer biomarkers. Clin Cancer Res 2004; 10: 4389–4397
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kim J G, Lee J Y. Changes in profiles of circulating insulin-like growth factor components during hormone replacement therapy according to the responsiveness to therapy in postmenopausal women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2001; 184: 1139–1144
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ho K K, O'Sullivan A J, Weissberger A J, Kelly J J. Sex steroid regulation of growth hormone secretion and action. Horm Res 1996; 45: 67–73
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nugent A G, Leung K C, Sullivan D, Reutens A T, Ho K K. Modulation by progestogens of the effects of oestrogen on hepatic endocrine function in postmenopausal women. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2003; 59: 690–698
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kimmerle R, Heinemann L, Heise T, Bender R, Weyer C, Hirschberger S, Berger M. Influence of continuous combined estradiol–norethisterone acetate preparations on insulin sensitivity in postmenopausal nondiabetic women. Menopause 1999; 6: 36–42
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li C, Samsioe G, Borgfeldt C, Bendahl P O, Wilawan K, Aberg A. Low-dose hormone therapy and carbohydrate metabolism. Fertil Steril 2003; 79: 550–555
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Godsland I F, Gangar K, Walton C, Cust M P, Whitehead M I, Wynn V, Stevenson J C. Insulin resistance, secretion, and elimination in postmenopausal women receiving oral or transdermal hormone replacement therapy. Metabolism 1993; 42: 846–853
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duncan A C, Lyall H, Roberts R N, Petrie J R, Perera M J, Monaghan S, Hart D M, Connell J M, Lumsden M A. The effect of estradiol and a combined estradiol/progestagen preparation on insulin sensitivity in healthy postmenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999; 84: 2402–2407
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lindheim S R, Presser S C, Ditkoff E C, Vijod M A, Stanczyk F Z, Lobo R A. A possible bimodal effect of estrogen on insulin sensitivity in postmenopausal women and the attenuating effect of added progestin. Fertil Steril 1993; 60: 664–667
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Espeland M A, Hogan P E, Fineberg S E, Howard G, Schrott H, Waclawiw M A, Bush T L. Effect of postmenopausal hormone therapy on glucose and insulin concentrations. PEPI Investigators. Postmenopausal Estrogen/Progestin Interventions. Diabetes Care 1998; 21: 1589–1595
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Os I, Os A, Abdelnoor M, Larsen A, Birkeland K, Westheim A. Insulin sensitivity in women with coronary heart disease during hormone replacement therapy. J Womens Health 2005; 14: 137–145
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sites C K, L'Hommedieu G D, Toth M J, Brochu M, Cooper B C, Fairhurst P A. The effect of hormone replacement therapy on body composition, body fat distribution, and insulin sensitivity in menopausal women: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005; 90: 2701–2707
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodrow G J, L'Hommedieu G D, Gannon B, Sites C K. Predictors of worsening insulin sensitivity in postmenopausal women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2006; 194: 355–361
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Margolis K L, Bonds D E, Rodabough R J, Tinker L, Phillips L S, Allen C, Bassford T, Burke G, Torrens J, Howard B V. Effect of oestrogen plus progestin on the incidence of diabetes in postmenopausal women: results from the Women's Health Initiative Hormone Trial. Diabetologia 2004; 47: 1175–1187
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lobo R A, Bush T, Carr B R, Pickar J H. Effects of lower doses of conjugated equine estrogens and medroxyprogesterone acetate on plasma lipids and lipoproteins, coagulation factors, and carbohydrate metabolism. Fertil Steril 2001; 76: 13–24
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanaya A M, Herrington D, Vittinghoff E, Lin F, Grady D, Bittner V, Cauley J A, Barrett-Connor E. Glycemic effects of postmenopausal hormone therapy: the Heart and Estrogen/progestin Replacement Study. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 2003; 138: 1–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kwok S, Selby P L, McElduff P, Laing I, Mackness B, Mackness M I, Prais H, Morgan J, Yates A P, Durrington P N, et al. Progestogens of varying androgenicity and cardiovascular risk factors in postmenopausal women receiving oestrogen replacement therapy. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2004; 61: 760–767
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sitruk-Ware R, Husmann F, Thijssen J H, Skouby S O, Fruzzetti F, Hanker J, Huber J, Druckmann R. Role of progestins with partial antiandrogenic effects. Climacteric 2004; 7: 238–254
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaspard U J, Wery O J, Scheen A J, Jaminet C, Lefebvre P J. Long-term effects of oral estradiol and dydrogesterone on carbohydrate metabolism in postmenopausal women. Climacteric 1999; 2: 93–100
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Godsland I F, Manassiev N A, Felton C V, Proudler A J, Crook D, Whitehead M I, Stevenson J C. Effects of low and high dose oestradiol and dydrogesterone therapy on insulin and lipoprotein metabolism in healthy postmenopausal women. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2004; 60: 541–549
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campagnoli C, Biglia N, Lanza M G, Lesca L, Peris C, Sismondi P. Androgenic progestogens oppose the decrease of insulin-like growth factor I serum level induced by conjugated oestrogens in postmenopausal women. Preliminary report. Maturitas 1994; 19: 25–31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campagnoli C, Biglia N, Cantamessa C, Di Sario M M, Lesca L. Effect of progestins on IGF-I serum level in estrogen-treated postmenopausal women. Zentralbl Gynakol 1997; 119(Suppl 2)7–11
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Raudaskoski T, Knip M, Laatikainen T. Plasma insulin-like growth factor-I and its binding proteins 1 and 3 during continuous nonoral and oral combined hormone replacement therapy. Menopause 1998; 5: 217–222
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ravn P, Overgaard K, Spencer E M, Christiansen C. Insulin-like growth factors I and II in healthy women with and without established osteoporosis. Eur J Endocrinol 1995; 132: 313–319
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Posaci C, Altunyurt S, Islekel H, Onvural A. Effects of HRT on serum levels of IGF-I in postmenopausal women. Maturitas 2001; 40: 69–74
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balogh A, Kauf E, Vollanth R, Graser G, Klinger G, Oettel M. Effects of two oral contraceptives on plasma levels of insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) and growth hormone (hGH). Contraception 2000; 62: 259–269
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malarkey W B, Burleson M, Cacioppo J T, Poehlmann K, Glaser R, Kiecolt-Glaser J K. Differential effects of estrogen and medroxyprogesterone on basal and stress-induced growth hormone release, IGF-1 levels, and cellular immunity in postmenopausal women. Endocrine 1997; 7: 227–233
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slowinska-Srzednicka J, Zgliczynski S, Jeske W, Stopinska-Gluszak U, Srzednicki M, Brzezinska A, Zgliczynski W, Sadowski Z. Transdermal 17β-estradiol combined with oral progestogen increases plasma levels of insulin-like growth factor-I in postmenopausal women. J Endocrinol Invest 1992; 15: 533–538
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fonseca E, Ochoa R, Galvan R, Hernandez M, Mercado M, Zarate A. Increased serum levels of growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor-I associated with simultaneous decrease of circulating insulin in postmenopausal women receiving hormone replacement therapy. Menopause 1999; 6: 56–60
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campagnoli C, Colombo P, De Aloysio D, Gambacciani M, Grazioli I, Nappi C, Serra G B, Genazzani A R. Positive effects on cardiovascular and breast metabolic markers of oral estradiol and dydrogesterone in comparison with transdermal estradiol and norethisterone acetate. Maturitas 2002; 41: 299–311
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campagnoli C, Abba C, Ambroggio S, Peris C. Differential effects of progestins on the circulating IGF-I system. Maturitas 2003; 46(Suppl 1)S39–S44
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Helle S I, Omsjo I H, Hughes S C, Botta L, Huls G, Holly J M, Lonning P E. Effects of oral and transdermal oestrogen replacement therapy on plasma levels of insulin-like growth factors and IGF binding proteins 1 and 3: a cross-over study. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1996; 45: 727–732
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller V T, Muesing R A, LaRosa J C, Stoy D B, Phillips E A, Stillman R J. Effects of conjugated equine estrogen with and without three different progestogens on lipoproteins, high-density lipoprotein subfractions, and apolipoprotein A-I. Obstet Gynecol 1991; 77: 235–240
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Darney P D. The androgenicity of progestins. Am J Med 1995; 98(Suppl 1A)104–110
   Google Scholar
• Campagnoli C, Ambroggio S, Peris C. Conjugated estrogens and breast cancer risk. Gynecol Endocrinol 1999; 13(Suppl 6)S13–S19
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Campagnoli C, Abba C, Ambroggio S, Peris C. Effects of estrogen-only treatment in postmenopausal women [letter]. J Am Med Assoc 2004; 292: 683–684
   Google Scholar
• Campagnoli C, Biglia N, Peris C, Sismondi P. Potential impact on breast cancer risk of circulating insulin-like growth factor I modifications induced by oral HRT in menopause. Gynecol Endocrinol 1995; 9: 67–74
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eliassen A H, Missmer S A, Tworoger S S, Spiegelman D, Barbieri R L, Dowsett M, Hankinson S E. Endogenous steroid hormone concentrations and risk of breast cancer among premenopausal women. J Natl Cancer Inst 2006; 98: 1406–1415
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaaks R, Berrino F, Key T, Rinaldi S, Dossus L, Biessy C, Secreto G, Amiano P, Bingham S, Boeing H, et al. Serum sex steroids in premenopausal women and breast cancer risk within the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC). J Natl Cancer Inst 2005; 97: 755–765
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muti P, Stanulla M, Micheli A, Krogh V, Freudenheim J L, Yang J, Schunemann H J, Trevisan M, Berrino F. Markers of insulin resistance and sex steroid hormone activity in relation to breast cancer risk: a prospective analysis of abdominal adiposity, sebum production, and hirsutism (Italy). Cancer Causes Control 2000; 11: 721–730
   PubMedGoogle Scholar