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Original Articles

Consumers as Co-developers: Learning and Innovation Outside the Firm

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Pages 363-383 | Published online: 25 Aug 2010

Notes and References

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  • Consumers carry out work that traditionally was done by computer game manufacturers. For example, when a manufacturer develops a new map in-house by employing a professional art designer, who on average earns US$59,612 per year (www.gamasutra.com/features/20010831/survey—01.htm) and typically spends ten days to create a high quality map, the cost of a single quality map is US$2980. Consumers frequently make maps of comparable quality. Westwood Studios have chosen to have 8–12 consumer made maps continuously available for download at their next to an equal number of maps made by professional employees.
  • Franke & Shah, op. cit., Ref. 8.
  • Miles , I. 1997 . Cyberspace as Product Space. Interactive Learning about Interactive Media . Futures , 29 : 788
  • Ibid.
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  • 1999 . Special Issue: Communication Processes for Virtual Organizations . Organization Science , 10 ( 6 )
  • Brown & Duguid, op. cit., Ref. 6.
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  • Von Hippel, op. cit., Ref. 5.
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  • Yin , R.K. 1994 . Case Study Research: Design and Method , 2nd , San Francisco : Sage .
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  • Herzberg , F. One More Time—How do You Motivate Employees . Harvard Business Review , 46 ( 1968 ) 53 – 62 . E.L. Deci, Intrinsic Motivation (New York, Plenum Press, 1975).
  • Huizinga , J. 1950 . Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play Element in Culture , Boston : The Beacon Press . M. Csikszentmihalyi, Creativity: Flow and the Psychology of Discovery And Invention (New York, Harper Collins, 1996).
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  • Von Hippel, op. cit., Ref. 5.
  • Thomke , S. and von Hippel , E. 2002 . Customers as Innovators: A New Way to Create Value . Harvard Business Review , 80 : 74 Ibid., et seq.; E. von Hippel & R. Katz, ‘Shifting Innovation to Users via Toolkits’, Management Science, 48, 2002, pp. 821–833.
  • Von Hippel, op. cit., Ref. 19.
  • Thomke & Von Hippel, op. cit., Ref. 30.
  • Argyris , C. and Schön , D.A. 1978 . Organizational Learning: A theory of Action Perspective , Reading, MA : Addison-Wesley . J.G. March, ‘Exploration and Exploitation in Organizational Learning’, Organization Science, 2, 1991, pp. 71–87; T.S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolution, 3rd edn (Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, 1996).
  • Argyris & Schon, op. cit., Ref. 33; Kuhn, op. cit., Ref. 33.
  • It should be mentioned that the material is presented in an unedited form. Therefore we see many examples of misspellings and abbreviations. We have left the text in its original form to give the reader a realistic experience of these environments and as an illustration of the fact that the community practices also involve a specific vocabulary.
  • Argyris & Schön, op. cit., Ref. 33.
  • These interactions are saved in RAF and can be retrieved later via a search system. In this sense, the RAF becomes an evolving consumer support library or manual that can be used to answer all kinds of questions. We find several internal references within the library. There is an established community practice, which is to search the RAF before posing questions that might have been solved earlier, but also to ease the burden of high-ranking members such as Wildefire.
  • Etzioni & Etzioni, op. cit., Ref. 14.
  • Cook , S.D.N. and Yanow , D. Culture and Organizational Learning . Journal of Management Inquiry , 2 ( 1993 ) 373 – 390 . C.M. Fiol, ‘Consensus, Diversity, and Learning in Organizations’, Organization Science, 5, 1994, pp. 403–420; Weick & Westley, op. cit., Ref. 20.
  • Lions Thumps Up is the highest acknowledgement a map can get on the map-publishing site governed by gamer RALion.
  • Sadler-Smith , E. and Badger , B. 1998 . Cognitive Style, Learning and Innovation . Technology Analysis & Strategic Management , 10 : 247 – 265 . Brown & Duguid, op. cit., Ref. 6; Cook & Yanow, op. cit., Ref. 39; Fiol, op. cit., Ref. 39; Weick & Westley, op. cit., Ref. 20
  • In these interactions we have cut out most of the technical communication since it would take up too much space and would be incomprehensible to many readers.
  • Von Hippel & Katz, op. cit., Ref. 30.
  • von Hippel , E. 1988 . The Sources of innovation , New York : Oxford University Press . S. Conway, ‘Informal Boundary-spanning Communication in the Innovation Process: An Empirical-Study’, Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 7, 1995, pp. 327–342.
  • Enos , J.L. 1962 . Petroleum Progress and Profits: A History of Process Innovation , Cambridge, MA : MIT Press . C. Freeman, ‘Chemical Process Plant: Innovation and the World Market’, National Institute Economic Review, 45, 1968, pp. 29–57; E. von Hippel, ‘The Dominant Role of Users in the Scientific Instrument Innovation Process’, Research Policy, 5, 1976, pp. 212–239.
  • Lüthje, op. cit., Ref. 7; Franke & Shah, op. cit., Ref. 8.
  • Mintzberg & Waters, op. cit., Ref. 23.
  • Von Hippel, op. cit., Ref. 28.
  • Lampel , J. and Mintzberg , H. Customizing Customization . Sloan Management Review , 38 ( 1996 ) 21 – 30 . G. Da Silveira, D. Borenstein & F.S. Fogliatto, ‘Mass Customization: Literature Review and Research Directions’, International Journal of Production Economics, 72, 2001, pp. 1–13.
  • Fiol, op. cit., Ref. 39.

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