Understanding the interface of HIV, trauma, post-traumatic stress disorder, and substance use and its implications for health outcomes

References

• Acierno , R , Kilpatrick , DG , Resnick , HS and Saunders , BE . (1996) . Violent assault, posttraumatic stress disorder, and depression: risk factors for cigarette use among adult women . Behavior Modification , 20 : 363 – 384 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allers , CT and Benjack , KJ . (1991) . Connections between childhood sexual abuse and HIV infection . Journal of Counseling and Development , 70 : 309 – 313 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allers , CT and Benjack , KJ . (1992) . Barriers to HIV education and prevention: the role of unresolved childhood sexual abuse . Journal of Child Sexual Abuse , 1 (4) : 69 – 81 .
   Google Scholar
• Allers , CT , Benjack , KJ , White , J and Rousey , JT . (1993) . HIV vulnerability and the adult survivor of childhood sexual abuse . Child Abuse and Neglect , 17 : 291 – 298 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amaro , H . (1995) . Love, sex, and power: considering women's realities in HIV prevention . American Psychologist , 50 : 437 – 447 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association (2000) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (text revision) Washington DC American Psychiatric Association
   Google Scholar
• Andersen , M , Paliwoda , J and Kaczynski , R . (2003) . Integrating medical and substance abuse treatment for addicts living with HIV/AIDS: evidence-based nursing practice model . American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse , 29 : 847 – 859 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andrykowski , MA , Cordova , MJ , Studts , JL and Miller , TW . (1998) . Posttraumatic stress disorder after treatment for breast cancer: prevalence of diagnosis and use of the PTSD checklist—civilian version (PCL-C) as a screening instrument . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 66 : 586 – 590 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Antoni MH Baggett L LaPerriere A August S Ironson G Klimas N et al (1991) Cognitive behavioral stress management intervention buffers distress responses and elevates immunologic markers following notification of HIV-1 seropositivity Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 59 906 915
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Astin , MC , Ogland-Hand , SM , Coleman , E and Foy , DW . (1995) . Posttraumatic stress disorder and childhood abuse in battered women: comparisons with maritally distressed women . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 63 : 308 – 312 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Avants , SK , Margolin , A , Warburton , LA , Hawkins , KA and Shi , J . (2001) . Predictors of nonadherence to HIV-related medication regimens during methadone stabilization . American Journal on Addictions , 10 : 69 – 78 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bagasra , O , Kajdacsy-Balla , A , Lischner , HW and Pomerantz , RJ . (1993) . Alcohol intake increases human immunodeficiency virus type-1 replication in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells . Journal of Infectious Diseases , 167 : 789 – 797 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bamberger , JD , Unick , J , Klein , P , Fraser , M , Chesney , M and Katz , MH . (2000) . Helping the urban poor stay with antiretroviral HIV drug therapy . American Journal of Public Health , 90 : 699 – 701 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barreira , P , Espey , B and Fishbein , R . (2000) . Linking substance abuse and serious mental illness service delivery systems: initiating a statewide collaborative . Journal of Behavioral Health Services and Research , 27 : 107 – 113 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bartholow BN Doll LS Joy D Douglas JM Bolan G Harrison JS et al (1994) Emotional, behavioral, and HIV risks associated with sexual abuse among adult homosexual and bisexual men Child Abuse and Neglect 18 747 761
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bedimo , AL , Kissinger , P and Bessinger , R . (1997) . History of sexual abuse among HIV-infected women . International Journal of STD and AIDS , 8 : 332 – 335 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belcher , L , Kalichman , S , Topping , M , Smith , S , Ernshoff , J , Norris , F and Nurss , J . (1998) . A randomized trial of a brief HIV risk reduction counseling intervention for women . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 66 : 856 – 861 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berger , JM and Levin , SM . (1993) . Adolescent substance abuse and HIV/AIDS: linking the systems . Journal of Adolescent Chemical Dependency , 2 (3–4) : 49 – 56 .
   Google Scholar
• Bing EG Burnam A Longshore D Fleishman JA Sherbourne CD London AS et al (2001) Psychiatric disorders and drug use among human immunodeficiency virus-infected adults in the United States Archives of General Psychiatry 58 721 728
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boles , SM and Miotto , K . (2003) . Substance abuse and violence: a review of the literature . Aggression and Violent Behavior , 8 : 155 – 174 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brady , KT , Dansky , BS , Back , SE , Foa , EB and Carroll , KM . (2001) . Exposure therapy in the treatment of PTSD among cocaine-dependent individuals: preliminary findings . Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment , 21 : 47 – 54 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breslau , N and Davis , GC . (1992) . Posttraumatic stress disorder in an urban population of young adults: risk factors for chronicity . American Journal of Psychiatry , 149 : 671 – 675 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breslau , N , Davis , GC , Peterson , EL and Schulz , LR . (1997) . Psychiatric sequelae of posttraumatic stress disorder in women . Archives of General Psychiatry , 54 : 81 – 87 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bright , DC . (1999) . Antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection: a review of current medications and therapies . Journal of the American Optometric Association , 70 : 355 – 383 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brismar , B and Bergman , B . (1998) . The significance of alcohol for violence and accidents . Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research , 22 : S299 – S306 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Broers , B , Morabia , A and Hirschel , B . (1994) . A cohort study of drug users’ compliance with zidovudine treatment . Archives of Internal Medicine , 154 : 1121 – 1127 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown , PJ and Wolfe , J . (1994) . Substance abuse and post-traumatic stress disorder comorbidity . Drug and Alcohol Dependence , 35 : 51 – 59 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown PJ Read JP Kahler CW (2003) Comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders: treatment outcomes and the role of coping In P. Ouimette & P. Brown (Eds.) Trauma and substance abuse: causes, consequences, and treatment of comorbid disorders Washington DC American Psychological Association pp. 171–188
   Google Scholar
• Cabaj RP (1998) Substance abuse and HIV diseases: entwined and intimate entities In E. F. McCance-Katz & T. R. Kosten (Eds.) New treatments for chemical addictions Washington DC American Psychiatric Press pp. 113–149
   Google Scholar
• Caraballo-Dieguez , A and Dolezal , C . (1995) . Association between history of childhood sexual abuse and adult HIV-risk sexual behavior in Puerto Rican men who have sex with men . Child Abuse and Neglect , 19 : 595 – 605 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carey , MP , Maiston , SA , Kalichman , SC , Forsyth , AD , Wright , EM and Johnson , BT . (1997) . Enhancing motivation to reduce the risk of HIV infection for economically disadvantaged urban women . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 65 : 531 – 541 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castellon , SA , Hinkin , CH and Myers , HF . (2000) . Neuropsychiatric disturbance is associated with executive dysfunction in HIV-1 infection . Journal of International Neuropsychological Society , 6 : 336 – 347 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2002 Basic statistics. National Center for HIV, STD and TB Prevention. Divisions of HIV/AIDS Prevention Available at http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/stats.htm (accessed 15 December 2002)
   Google Scholar
• Chemtob , CM , Novaco , RW , Hamada , RS and Gross , DM . (1997) . Cognitive behavioral treatment of severe anger in posttraumatic stress disorder . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 65 : 184 – 189 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cherpitel , C . (1997) . Alcohol and injuries resulting from violence: a comparison of emergency room samples from two regions in the US . Journal of Addictive Diseases , 16 (1) : 25 – 40 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chesney , M , Folkman , S and Chambers , D . (1996) . Coping effectiveness training for men living with HIV: preliminary findings . International Journal of STD and AIDS , 7 (Supplement 2) : 75 – 82 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chilcoat , HD and Breslau , N . (1998) . Investigations of causal pathways between PTSD and drug use disorders . Addictive Behaviors , 23 : 827 – 840 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cinatl J Jr Cinatl J Rabenau H Doerr HW Weber B (1994) Failure of antiretroviral therapy: role of viral and cellular factors Intervirology 37 307 314
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen , MA , Alfonso , CA , Hoffman , RG , Milau , V and Carrera , G . (2001) . The impact of PTSD on treatment adherence in persons with HIV infection . General Hospital Psychiatry , 23 : 294 – 296 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collins , JJ and Schlenger , WE . (1988) . Acute and chronic effects of alcohol use on violence . Journal of Studies on Alcohol , 49 : 516 – 521 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conviser , R and Pounds , MB . (2002) . The role of ancillary services in client-centered systems of care . AIDS Care , 14 : S119 – S131 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cottler , LB , Compton , WM , Mager , D , Spitznagel , EL and Janca , A . (1992) . Posttraumatic stress disorder among substance users from the general population . American Journal of Psychiatry , 149 : 664 – 670 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crum , RM , Galai , N , Cohn , S , Celentano , DD and Vlahov , D . (1996) . Alcohol use and T-lymphocyte subsets among injection drug users with HIV-1 infection: a prospective analysis . Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research , 20 : 364 – 371 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cunningham , RM , Stiffman , A , Dore , P and Earls , F . (1994) . The association of physical and sexual abuse with HIV risk behaviors in adolescence and young adulthood: implications for public health . Child Abuse and Neglect , 18 : 233 – 245 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dilorio , C , Hartwell , T and Hansen , N . (2002) . Childhood sexual abuse and risk behaviors among men at high risk for HIV infection . American Journal of Public Health , 92 : 214 – 219 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drake R Mercer E McFadden C Mueser KT McHugo G Gregory J et al (1998) Review of integrated mental health and substance abuse treatment for patients with dual disorders Schizophrenia Bulletin 24 589 608
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eldred , LJ , Wu , A , Chaisson , RE and Moore , RD . (1998) . Adherence to antiretroviral and pneumocystis prophylaxis in HIV disease . Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome and Human Retroviruses , 18 : 117 – 125 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fabris P Tositti G Manfrin V Giordani MT Vaglia A Cattelan AM et al (2000) Does alcohol intake affect highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) response in HIV-positive patients? Journal of AIDS 25 92 93
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Felitti VJ Anda RF Nordenberg D Williamson DF Spitz AM Edwards V et al (1998) Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: the Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) study American Journal of Preventive Medicine 14 245 258
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finkelhor , D , Hotaling , G , Lewis , IA and Smith , C . (1990) . Sexual abuse in a national survey of adult men and women: prevalence, characteristics and risk factors . Child Abuse and Neglect , 14 : 19 – 28 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foa , EB , Rothbaum , BO , Riggs , DS and Murdock , TB . (1991) . Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder in rape victims: a comparison between cognitive–behavioral procedures and counseling . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 59 : 715 – 723 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foa , EB , Dancu , CV , Hembree , EA , Jaycox , LH , Meadows , EA and Street , GP . (1999) . A comparison of exposure therapy, stress inoculation training, and their combination for reducing posttraumatic stress disorder in female assault victims . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 67 : 194 – 2000 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foa EB Keane TM Friedman MJ (2000) Effective treatments for PTSD: practice guidelines from the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies New York Guilford Press
   Google Scholar
• Freeman , RC , Rodriguez , GM and French , JF . (1996) . Compliance with AZT treatment regimens of HIV-seropositive injection drug users: a neglected issue . AIDS Education and Prevention , 8 : 58 – 71 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friedland , GH and Williams , A . (1999) . Attaining higher goals in HIV treatment: the central importance of adherence . AIDS , 13 (Supplement 1) : 561 – 572 .
   Google Scholar
• Friedman MJ Schnurr P (1995) The relationship between PTSD, trauma, and physical health In M. J. Friedman, D. S. Charney & A. Y. Deutch (Eds.) Neurobiological and clinical consequences of stress: from normal adaptation to PTSD New York Raven Press pp. 507–524
   Google Scholar
• Fullilove MT Fullilove III RE Smith M Winkler K Michael C Panzer PG et al (1993) Violence, trauma, and posttraumatic stress disorder among women drug users Journal of Traumatic Stress 6 533 543
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galvan FH Bing EG Fleishman JA London AS Caetano R Burnam MA et al (2002) The prevalence of alcohol consumption and heavy drinking among people with HIV in the United States: results from the HIV Cost and Services Utilization Study Journal of Studies on Alcohol 63 179 186
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gluckman , SJ , Dvorak , VC and MacGregor , RR . (1997) . Host defenses during prolonged alcohol consumption in a controlled environment . Archives of Internal Medicine , 137 : 1539 – 1543 .
   Google Scholar
• Golding , JM . (1994) . Sexual assault history and physical health in randomly selected Los Angeles women . Health Psychology , 13 : 130 – 138 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gordillo , V , Del Amo , J , Soriano , V and Gonzalez-Lahoz , J . (1999) . Sociodemographic and psychological variables influencing adherence to antiretroviral therapy . AIDS , 10 : 1763 – 1769 .
   Google Scholar
• Halkitis , PN . (1998) . Advances in the treatment of HIV disease: complexities of adherence and complications for prevention . Health Psychologist , 20 (1) : 6 – 15 .
   Google Scholar
• Halkitis , PN and Wilton , L . (1999) . Beyond complacency: the effects of treatment on HIV transmission . FOCUS: A Guide to AIDS Research and Counseling. , 14 (5) : 1 – 4 .
   Google Scholar
• Hinkin C Hardy DJ Mason KI Castellon SA Lam M Stefaniak M et al (2002) Verbal and spatial working memory performance among HIV-infected adults Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 8 532 538
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holmes , WC . (1997) . Association between a history of childhood sexual abuse and subsequent, adolescent psychoactive substance use disorder in a sample of HIV seropositive men . Journal of Adolescent Health , 20 : 414 – 419 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holzemer WL Corless IB Nokes KM Turner JG Brown MA Powell-Cope GM et al (1999) Predictors of self-reported adherence in persons living with HIV disease AIDS Patient Care and STDs 13 185 197
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hyer , L , McCranie , E and Peralme , L . (1993) . Dual diagnosis: PTSD and alcohol abuse . National Center for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Clinical Newsletter , 3 : 1 – 10 .
   Google Scholar
• Jerrell , JM . (1996) . Toward cost-effective care for persons with dual diagnoses . Journal of Mental Health Administration , 23 : 329 – 337 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Johnsen , LW and Harlow , LL . (1996) . Childhood sexual abuse linked with adult substance use, victimization, and AIDS-risk . AIDS Education and Prevention , 8 : 44 – 57 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalichman , SC , Sikkema , KJ , DiFonzo , K , Luke , W and Austin , J . (2002) . Emotional adjustment in survivors of sexual assault living with HIV–AIDS . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 15 : 289 – 296 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaslow RA Blackwelder WC Ostrow DG Yerg D Palenicek J Coulson AH et al (1989) No evidence for a role of alcohol or other psychoactive drugs in accelerating immunodeficiency in HIV-1 positive individuals Journal of American Medical Association 261 3424 3429
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keane TM (1998) Psychological and behavioral treatments of post-traumatic stress disorder In P. Nathan & J. Gorman (Eds.) A guide to treatments that work Oxford Oxford University Press pp. 398–407
   Google Scholar
• Keane TM Barlow DH (2002) Posttraumatic stress disorder In D. H. Barlow (Ed.) Anxiety and its disorders 2nd edn New York Guilford Press pp. 418–453
   Google Scholar
• Keane , TM and Kaloupek , DG . (1982) . Imaginal flooding in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 50 : 138 – 140 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keane TM Kaloupek DG (1997) Comorbid psychiatric disorders in PTSD: implications for research In R. Yehuda & A. McFarlane (Eds.) Psychobiology of posttraumatic stress disorder New York Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences pp. 24–34
   Google Scholar
• Keane , TM and Wolfe , J . (1990) . Comorbidity in post-traumatic stress disorder: an analysis of community and clinical studies . Journal of Applied Social Psychology , 20 : 1776 – 1788 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keane , TM , Scott , ON , Chavoya , GA , Lamparski , DM and Fairbank , JA . (1985) . Social support in Vietnam veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder: a comparative analysis . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 53 : 95 – 102 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keane , TM , Fairbank , JA , Caddell , JM and Zimering , RT . (1989) . Implosive (flooding) therapy reduces symptoms of PTSD in Vietnam combat veterans . Behavior Therapy , 20 : 245 – 260 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly B Raphael B Judd F Perdices M Kernutt G Burnett P et al (1998) Posttraumatic stress disorder in response to HIV infection General Hospital Psychiatry 20 345 352
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kessler , RC , Sonnega , A , Bromet , E , Hughes , M and Nelson , CB . (1995) . Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey . Archives of General Psychiatry , 52 : 1048 – 1060 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kilpatrick DG Resnick HS (1993) PTSD associated with exposure to criminal victimization in clinical and community populations In J. R. T. Davidson & E. B. Foa (Eds.) Posttraumatic stress disorder in review. Recent research and future directions Washington DC American Psychiatric Press pp. 113–143
   Google Scholar
• Kimerling , R and Calhoun , KS . (1994) . Somatic symptoms, social support, and treatment seeking among sexual assault victims . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 62 : 333 – 340 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kimerling R Calhoun KS Forehand R Armistead L Morse E Morse P et al (1999a) Traumatic stress in HIV-infected women AIDS Education and Prevention 11 321 330
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kimerling , R , Armistead , L and Forehand , R . (1999b) . Victimization experiences and HIV infection in women. Associations with serostatus, psychological symptoms, and health status . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 12 : 41 – 58 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kimerling , R , Clum , GA and Wolfe , J . (2000) . Relationships among trauma exposure, chronic posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, and self-reported health in women: replication and extension . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 13 : 115 – 128 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• King , DW , King , LA , Foy , DW and Gudanowski , DM . (1996) . Prewar factors in combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder: structural equation modeling with a national sample of female and male Vietnam veterans . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 64 : 520 – 531 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lefevre F O'Leary B Moran M Mossar M Yarnold PR Martin GL et al (1995) Alcohol consumption among HIV-infected patients Journal of General Internal Medicine 10 458 460
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lemp , GF , Payne , SF , Neal , D , Temelso , T and Rutherford , GW . (1990) . Survival trends for people with AIDS . Journal of American Medical Association , 263 : 402 – 406 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leserman , J , Drossman , DA , Zhiming , L , Toomey , TC , Nachman , G and Glogau , L . (1996) . Sexual and physical abuse history in gastroenterology practice: how types of abuse impact health status . Psychosomatic Medicine , 58 : 4 – 15 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leserman , J , Pettitto , JM , Perkins , DO , Folds , JD , Golden , RN and Evans , DW . (1997) . Severe stress, depressive symptoms, and changes in lymphocyte subsets in human immunodeficiency virus-infected men. A 2-year follow-up study . Archives of General Psychiatry , 54 : 279 – 285 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu , YK . (1980) . Effects of alcohol on granulocytes and lymphocytes . Seminar in Hematology , 17 : 130 – 136 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lodico , MA and DiClemente , RJ . (1994) . The association between childhood sexual abuse and prevalence of HIV-related risk behaviors . Clinical Pediatrics , 33 : 498 – 502 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lyketsos CG Fishman M Hutton H Cox T Hobbs S Spoler C et al (1997) The effectiveness of psychiatric treatment for HIV-infected patients Psychosomatics 38 423 432
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• MacMillan HL Fleming JE Trocme N Boyle MH Wong M Racine YA et al (1997) Prevalence of child physical and sexual abuse in the community: results from the Ontario Health Supplement Journal of American Medical Association 278 131 135
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malow RM Baker SM Klimas N Antoni MH Schneiderman N Penedo FJ et al (1998) Adherence to complex combination antiretroviral therapies by HIV-positive drug abusers Psychiatric Services 49 1021 1024
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marks , IM , Lovell , K , Noshirvani , H , Livanou , M and Thrasher , S . (1998) . Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder by exposure and/or cognitive restructuring: a controlled study . Archives of General Psychiatry , 55 : 317 – 325 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martinez , A , Israelski , D , Walker , C and Koopman , C . (2002) . Posttraumatic stress disorder in women attending human immunodeficiency virus outpatient clinic . AIDS Patient Care , 16 : 283 – 291 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mellins , CA , Havens , JF , McCaskill , EO , Leu , CS , Brudney , K and Chesney , M . (2002) . Mental health, substance use, and disclosure are significantly associated with the medical treatment adherence of HIV-infected mothers . Psychology, Health and Medicine , 7 : 451 – 460 .
   Google Scholar
• Miller , MA . (1999) . Model to explain the relationship between sexual abuse and HIV risk among women . AIDS Care , 11 : 3 – 20 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Minkoff K (2001) Program components of a comprehensive integrated care system for serious mentally ill patients with substance disorders In R. H. Lamb (Ed.) Best of new directions for mental health services, 1979–2001 San Francisco CA Jossey-Bass pp. 17–30
   Google Scholar
• Miranda , R , Meyerson , LA , Marx , BP and Tucker , P . (2000) . Civilian-based posttraumatic stress disorder and physical complaints: an evaluation of depression as a mediator . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 15 : 297 – 301 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moak DH Anton RF (1999) Alcohol In B. S. McCrady & E. E. Epstein (Eds.) Addictions: a comprehensive guidebook New York Oxford University Press pp. 75–94
   Google Scholar
• Mostashari , F , Riley , E , Selwyn , PA and Altice , FL . (1998) . Acceptance and adherence with antiretroviral therapy among HIV-infected women in a correctional facility . Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome and Human Retrovirology , 18 : 341 – 348 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Najavits L (2002) Seeking safety: a treatment manual for PTSD and substance abuse New York Guilford Press
   Google Scholar
• Najavits LM (2003) Seeking safety: a new psychotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorder In P. Ouimette & P. J. Brown (Eds.) Trauma and substance abuse Washington DC American Psychological Association pp. 147–170
   Google Scholar
• Najavits LM Gastfriend DR Barber JP Reif S Muenz LR Blaine J et al (1998a) Cocaine dependence with and without PTSD among subjects in the National Institute on Drug Abuse Collaborative Cocaine Treatment Study American Journal of Psychiatry 155 214 219
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Najavits , LM , Weiss , RD , Shaw , SR and Muenz , LR . (1998b) . Seeking safety’: outcome of a new cognitive behavioral psychotherapy for women with posttraumatic stress disorder and substance dependence . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 11 : 437 – 456 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NIAAA (2001) Alcohol & AIDS: a guide to research issues and opportunities Wahsington DC NIAAA
   Google Scholar
• Ouimette , PC , Finney , JW and Moos , RH . (1999) . Two-year posttreatment functioning and coping of substance abuse patients with posttraumatic stress disorder . Psychology of Addictive Behaviors , 13 : 105 – 114 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ouimette , PC , Moos , RH and Finney , JW . (2000) . Two-year mental health service use and course of remission in patients with substance use and posttraumatic stress disorders . Journal of Studies on Alcohol , 61 : 247 – 253 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paul , JP , Catania , J , Pollack , L and Stall , R . (2001) . Understanding childhood sexual abuse as a predictor of sexual risk-taking among men who have sex with men: the Urban Men's Health Study . Child Abuse and Neglect , 25 : 557 – 584 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peniston , EG . (1986) . EMG biofeedback-assisted desensitization treatment for Vietnam combat veterans’ posttraumatic stress disorder . Clinical Biofeedback and Health: An International Journal , 9 : 35 – 41 .
   Google Scholar
• Perez B Kennedy G Fullilove MT (1995) Childhood sexual abuse and AIDS: issues and interventions In A. O'Leary & L. S. Jemmott (Eds.) Women at risk: issues in the primary prevention of AIDS New York Plenum Press pp. 83–101
   Google Scholar
• Petry , N . (1999) . Alcohol use in HIV patients: what we don't know may hurt us . International Journal of STD and AIDS , 10 : 561 – 570 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rabkin JG Chesney M (1999) Treatment adherence to HIV medications: the achilles heel of the new therapeutics In D. G. Ostrow & S. C. Kalichman (Eds.) Psychosocial and public health impacts of new HIV therapies New York Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers pp. 61–82
   Google Scholar
• Resick , PA and Schnicke , MK . (1992) . Cognitive processing therapy for sexual assault victims . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 60 : 748 – 756 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Resick PA Schnicke MK (1993) Cognitive processing therapy for rape victims: a treatment manual Thousand Oaks CA Sage
   Google Scholar
• Resick PA Nishith P Astin M (2000) A comparison of cognitive processing therapy and prolonged exposure: a randomized controlled clinical trial, Paper presented at the World Conference of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, Melbourne
   Google Scholar
• Resick , PA , Nishith , P , Weaver , TL , Astin , MC and Feuer , CA . (2002) . A comparison of cognitive-processing therapy with prolonged exposure and a waiting condition for the treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder in female rape victims . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 70 : 867 – 879 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Resnick , HS , Kilpatrick , DG , Dansky , BS , Saunders , BE and Best , CL . (1993) . Prevalence of civilian trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in a representative national sample of women . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 6 : 984 – 991 .
   Google Scholar
• Richards , DA , Lovell , K and Marks , IM . (1994) . Posttraumatic stress disorder: evaluation of a behavioral treatment program . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 7 : 669 – 680 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roizen J (1993) Issues in the epidemiology of alcohol and violence In S. E. Martin (Ed.) Alcohol and interpersonal violence: fostering multidisciplinary perspectives Rockville MD US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health & National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism pp. 1–36
   Google Scholar
• Roth JA (1994) Psychoactive substances and violence Washington DC National Institute of Justice, Office of Justice Programs (February)
   Google Scholar
• Rothbaum BO Meadows EA Resick P Foy DW (2000) Cognitive–behavioral therapy In E. B. Foa, T. M. Keane & M. J. Friedman (Eds.) Effective treatments for PTSD New York Guilford Press pp. 60–83
   Google Scholar
• Rotheram-Borus , MJ and Miller , S . (1998) . Secondary prevention for youths living with HIV . AIDS Care , 10 : 17 – 34 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rotheram-Borus , MJ , Murphy , DA , Reid , H and Coleman , C . (1996) . Correlates of emotional distress among HIV+ youth: health status, stress, and personal resources . Annals of Behavioral Medicine , 18 : 16 – 23 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rotheram-Borus MJ Murphy DA Coleman CL Kennedy M Reid HM Cline TR et al (1997) Risk acts, healthcare, and medical adherence among HIV+ youth in care over time AIDS and Behavior 1 43 52
   Google Scholar
• Samet JH Libman H Steger KA Dhawan RK Chen J Shevitz AH et al (1992) Compliance with zidovudine therapy in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus, type 1: a cross-sectional study in a municipal hospital clinic American Journal of Medicine 92 495 502
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samet , JH , Horton , NJ , Traphagen , ET , Lyon , SM and Freedberg , KA . (2003) . Alcohol consumption and HIV disease progression: are they related? . Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research , 27 : 862 – 867 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schiff , E . (1999) . The alcoholic patient with hepatitis C virus infection . American Journal of Medicine , 107 : 95S – 99S .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schnurr PP Green BL (2004) Understanding relationships among trauma, posttraumatic stress disorder, and health outcomes In P. P. Schnurr & B. L. Green (Eds.) Trauma and health: physical health consequences of exposure to extreme stress Washington DC American Psychological Association pp. 247–275
   Google Scholar
• Schnurr , PP , Spiro , A , Aldwin , CM and Stukel , T . (1998) . Physical symptom trajectories following trauma exposure: longitudinal findings from the normative aging study . Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 186 : 522 – 528 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schnurr , PP , Spiro , A and Paris , AH . (2000) . Physician-diagnosed medical disorders in relation to PTSD symptoms in older male military veterans . Health Psychology , 19 : 91 – 97 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simoni , JM and Ng , MT . (2000) . Trauma, coping, and depression among women with HIV/AIDS in New York City . AIDS Care , 12 : 567 – 580 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh , N , Squier , C , Sivek , C , Wagener , M , Nguyen , MH and Yu , VL . (1996) . Determinants of compliance with antiretroviral therapy in patients with human immunodeficiency virus: prospective assessment with implications for enhancing compliance . AIDS Care , 8 : 261 – 269 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh , N , Berman , SM , Swindells , S , Justis , JC , Mohr , JA , Squier , C and Wagener , MM . (1999) . Adherence of human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients to antiretroviral therapy . Clinical Infectious Diseases , 29 : 824 – 830 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith , MY , Egert , J , Winkel , G and Jacobson , J . (2002) . The impact of PTSD on pain experience in persons with HIV/AIDS . Pain , 98 : 9 – 17 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sorensen , JL , Batki , SL , Good , P and Williamson , K . (1989) . Methadone maintenance program for AIDS-affected opiate addicts . Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment , 6 : 87 – 94 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stiffman , AR , Dore , P , Earls , F and Cunningham , R . (1992) . The influence of mental health problems on AIDS-related risk behaviors in young adults . Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 180 : 314 – 320 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stine SM Kosten TR (1999) Opioids In B. S. McCrady & E. E. Epstein (Eds.) Addictions: a comprehensive guidebook New York Oxford University Press pp. 141–161
   Google Scholar
• Stewart , S . (1996) . Alcohol abuse in individuals exposed to trauma: a critical review . Psychological Bulletin , 120 : 83 – 112 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stone VE Clarke J Lovell J Steger KA Stein MD Tyree TJ et al (1998) HIV/AIDS patients’ perspectives on adhering to regimens containing protease inhibitors Journal of General Internal Medicine 13 586 593
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strathdee SA Palepu A Cornelisse PGA Yip B O'Shaughnessy MV Montaner JSG et al (1998) Barriers to use of free antiretroviral therapy in injection drug users Journal of American Medical Association 280 547 549
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tarrier N Pilgrim H Sommerfield C Faragher B Reynolds M Graham E et al (1999) A randomized trial of cognitive therapy and imaginal exposure in the treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 67 13 18
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Triffleman E (1998) An overview of trauma exposure, posttraumatic stress disorder, and addictions In H. Kranzler & B. Rounsaville (Eds.) Dual diagnosis and treatment New York Marcel Dekker pp. 263–316
   Google Scholar
• Vanhove , GG , Schapiro , JM , Winters , MA , Merigan , TC and Blaschke , TF . (1996) . Patient compliance and drug failure in protease inhibitor monotherapy [letter] . Journal of American Medical Association , 276 : 1955 – 1956 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weaver MF Schnoll SH (1999) Stimulants: amphetamines and cocaine In B. S. McCrady & E. E. Epstein (Eds.) Addictions: a comprehensive guidebook New York Oxford University Press pp. 105–120
   Google Scholar
• Wolfe , J , Schnurr , PP , Brown , PJ and Furey , J . (1994) . Posttraumatic stress disorder and war-zone exposure as correlates of perceived health in female Vietnam war veterans . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 62 : 1235 – 1240 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wyatt GE Myers HF Williams JK Kitchen CR Loeb T Carmona JV et al (2002) Does a history of trauma contribute to HIV risk for women of color? Implications for prevention and policy American Journal of Public Health 92 660 665
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zierler , S , Feingold , L , Laufer , D , Velentgas , P , Kantrowitz-Gordon , I and Mayer , K . (1991) . Adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse and subsequent risk of HIV infection . American Journal of Public Health , 81 : 572 – 575 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zierler , S , Witbeck , B and Mayer , K . (1996) . Sexual violence against women living with or at risk for HIV infection . American Journal of Preventive Medicine , 12 : 304 – 310 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zlotnick , C , Najavits , LM and Rohsenow , DJ . (2003) . A cognitive–behavioral treatment for incarcerated women with substance use disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder: findings from a pilot study . Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment , 25 : 99 – 105 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zoellner , LA , Goodwin , ML and Foa , E B . (2000) . PTSD severity and health perceptions in female victims of sexual assault . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 13 : 635 – 649 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zweben J (1998) Addressing substance abuse in clients with psychiatric disorders and HIV disease In J. W. Dilley & R. Marks (Eds.) The UCSF AIDS Health Project guide to counseling San Francisco CA Jossey-Bass pp. 312–332
   Google Scholar