Co-factors in HIV neurobehavioural disturbances: Substance abuse, hepatitis C and aging

References

• Abrams DI, Hilton JF, Leiser RJ, Shade SB, Elbeik TA, Aweeka FT, et al. Short-term effects of cannabinoids in patients with HIV-1 infection: A randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Ann Intern Med 2003; 139(4)258–266
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Acheampong E, Mukhtar M, Parveen Z, Ngoubilly N, Ahmad N, Patel C, et al. Ethanol strongly potentiates apoptosis induced by HIV-1 proteins in primary human brain microvascular endothelial cells. Virology 2002; 304(2)222–234
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aksenov MY, Aksenova MV, Nath A, Ray PD, Mactutus CF, Booze RM. Cocaine-mediated enhancement of Tat toxicity in rat hippocampal cell cultures: The role of oxidative stress and D1 dopamine receptor. Neurotoxicology 2006; 27(2)217–228
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alioum A, Leroy V, Commenges D, Dabis F, Salamon R. Effect of gender, age, transmission category, and antiretroviral therapy on the progression of human immunodeficiency virus infection using multistate Markov models. Groupe d'Epidèmiologie Clinique du SIDA en Aquitaine. Epidemiology 1998; 9(6)605–612
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• An SF, Giometto B, Groves M, Miller RF, Beckett AA, Gray F, et al. Axonal damage revealed by accumulation of beta-APP in HIV-positive individuals without AIDS. Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology 1997; 56(11)1262–1268
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Anthony IC, Ramage SN, Carnie FW, Simmonds P, Bell JE. Accelerated Tau deposition in the brains of individuals infected with human immunodeficiency virus-1 before and after the advent of highly active anti-retroviral therapy. Acta Neuropathol 2006; 111(6)529–538
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bartok JA, Martin EM, Pitrak DL, Novak RM, Pursell KJ, Mullane KM, et al. Working memory deficits in HIV-seropositive drug users. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 1997; 3(5)451–456
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Basso MR, Bornstein RA. Neurobehavioural consequences of substance abuse and HIV infection. Journal of Psychopharmacol 2000; 14(3)228–237
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Becker JT, Lopez OL, Dew MA, Aizenstein HJ. Prevalence of cognitive disorders differs as a function of age in HIV virus infection. AIDS 2004; 18(Suppl.1)S11–18
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belanger F, Meyer L, Carrè N, Coutellier A, Deveau C. Influence of age at infection on human immunodeficiency virus disease progression to different clinical endpoints: the SEROCO cohort (1988–1994). The Seroco Study Group. International Journal of Epidemiology 1997; 26(6)1340–1345
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Blaxhult A, Granath F, Lidman K, Giesecke J. The influence of age on the latency period to AIDS in people infected by HIV through blood transfusion. AIDS 1990; 4(2)125–129
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bornstein RA, Fama R, Rosenberger P, Whitacre CC, Para MF, Nasrallah HA, et al. Drug and alcohol use and neuropsychological performance in asymptomatic HIV infection. Journal of Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1993; 5(3)254–259
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bredt BM, Higuera-Alhino D, Shade SB, Hebert SJ, McCune JM, Abrams DI. Short-term effects of cannabinoids on immune phenotype and function in HIV-1-infected patients. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 2002; 42(Suppl.11)82S–89S
   Google Scholar
• Brinkman WJ, Hall DM, Suo JL, Weber RJ. Centrally-mediated opioid-induced immunosuppression. Elucidation of sympathetic nervous system involvement. Adv Exp Med Biol 1998; 437: 43–49
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cabral GA, Staab A. Effects on the immune system. Handb Exp Pharmacol 2005; 168: 385–423
   Google Scholar
• Carey CL, Woods SP, Rippeth JD, Gonzalez R, Heaton RK, Grant I. Additive deleterious effects of methamphetamine dependence and immunosuppression on neuropsychological functioning in HIV infection. AIDS Behav 2006; 10(2)185–190
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carré N, Deveau C, Belanger F, Boufassa F, Persoz A, Jadand C, et al. Effect of age and exposure group on the onset of AIDS in heterosexual and homosexual HIV-infected patients. SEROCO Study Group. AIDS 1994; 8(6)797–802
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cass WA, Harned ME, Peters LE, Nath A, Maragos WF. HIV-1 protein Tat potentiation of methamphetamine-induced decreases in evoked overflow of dopamine in the striatum of the rat. Brain Res 2003; 984(1–2)133–142
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caussin-Schwemling C, Schmitt C, Stoll-Keller F. Study of the infection of human blood derived monocyte/macrophages with hepatitis C virus in vitro. J Med Virol 2001; 65(1)14–22
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Center for Disease Control. HIV/AIDS surveillance report: HIV Infection and AIDS in the United States and Dependent Areas. Center for Disease Control, Atlanta, GA 2005
   Google Scholar
• Chana G, Everall IP, Crews L, Langford D, Adame A, Grant I, et al. Cognitive deficits and degeneration of interneurons in HIV+ methamphetamine users. Neurology 2006; 67(8)1486–1489
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang L, Ernst T, Speck O, Grob CS. Additive effects of HIV and chronic methamphetamine use on brain metabolite abnormalities. American Journal of Psychiatry 2005; 162(2)361–369
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang L, Lee PL, Yiannoutsos CT, Ernst T, Marra CM, Richards T, et al. A multicenter in vivo proton-MRS study of HIV-associated dementia and its relationship to age. Neuroimage 2004; 23(4)1336–1347
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cherner M, Ellis RJ, Lazzaretto D, Young C, Mindt MR, Atkinson JH, et al. Effects of HIV-1 infection and aging on neurobehavioral functioning: preliminary findings. AIDS 2004; 18(Suppl.1)S27–34
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cherner M, Letendre S, Heaton RK, Durelle J, Marquie-Beck J, Gragg B, et al. Hepatitis C augments cognitive deficits associated with HIV infection and methamphetamine. Neurology 2005; 64(8)1343–1347
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clifford DB, Evans SR, Yang Y, Gulick RM. The neuropsychological and neurological impact of hepatitis C virus co-infection in HIV-infected subjects. AIDS 2005; 19(Suppl.3)S64–71
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clifford DB, Yang Y, Evans S. Neurologic consequences of hepatitis C and human immunodeficiency virus coinfection. Journal of Neurovirology 2005; 11(Suppl.3)67–71
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Concha M, Graham NM, Munoz A, Vlahov D, Royal W, III, Updike M, et al. Effect of chronic substance abuse on the neuropsychological performance of intravenous drug users with a high prevalence of HIV-1 seropositivity. American Journal of Epidemiology 1992; 136(11)1338–1348
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Concha M, Selnes OA, Vlahov D, Nance-Sproson T, Updike M, Royal W, et al. Comparison of neuropsychological performance between AIDS-free injecting drug users and homosexual men. Neuroepidemiology 1997; 16(2)78–85
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cristiani SA, Pukay-Martin ND, Bornstein RA. Marijuana use and cognitive function in HIV-infected people. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 2004; 16(3)330–335
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davies J, Everall IP, Weich S, McLaughlin J, Scaravilli F, Lantos PL. HIV-associated brain pathology in the United Kingdom: An epidemiological study. AIDS 1997; 11(9)1145–1150
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dheen ST, Kaur C, Ling EA. Microglial activation and its implications in the brain diseases. Current Med Chem 2007; 14(11)1189–1197
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dingle GA, Oei TP. Is alcohol a cofactor of HIV and AIDS? Evidence from immunological and behavioral studies. Psychol Bulletin 1997; 122(1)56–71
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donahoe RM, Vlahov D. Opiates as potential cofactors in progression of HIV-1 infections to AIDS. Journal of Neuroimmunology 1998; 83(1–2)77–87
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Durvasula RS, Myers HF, Mason K, Hinkin C. Relationship between alcohol use/abuse, HIV infection and neuropsychological performance in African American men. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 2006; 28(3)383–404
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Durvasula RS, Myers HF, Satz P, Miller EN, Morgenstern H, Richardson MA, et al. HIV-1, cocaine, and neuropsychological performance in African American men. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 2000; 6(3)322–335
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ernst T, Chang L. Effect of aging on brain metabolism in antiretroviral-naive HIV patients. AIDS 2004; 18(Suppl.1)S61–67
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Esiri MM, Biddolph SC, Morris CS. Prevalence of Alzheimer plaques in AIDS. Journal of Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1998; 65(1)29–33
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Everall IP. Interaction between HIV and intravenous heroin abuse?. Journal of Neuroimmunology 2004; 147(1–2)13–15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farinpour R, Martin EM, Seidenberg M, Pitrak DL, Pursell KJ, Mullane KM, et al. Verbal working memory in HIV-seropositive drug users. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 2000; 6(5)548–555
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fiala M, Eshleman AJ, Cashman J, Lin J, Lossinsky AS, Suarez V, et al. Cocaine increases human immunodeficiency virus type 1 neuroinvasion through remodeling brain microvascular endothelial cells. Journal of Neurovirology 2005; 11(3)281–291
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fiala M, Gan XH, Zhang L, House SD, Newton T, Graves MC, et al. Cocaine enhances monocyte migration across the blood-brain barrier. Cocaine's connection to AIDS dementia and vasculitis?. Adv Exp Med Biol 1998; 437: 199–205
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forton DM, Allsop JM, Cox IJ, Hamilton G, Wesnes K, Thomas HC, et al. A review of cognitive impairment and cerebral metabolite abnormalities in patients with hepatitis C infection. AIDS 2005; 19(Suppl.3)S53–63
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forton DM, Allsop JM, Main J, Foster GR, Thomas HC, Taylor-Robinson SD. Evidence for a cerebral effect of the hepatitis C virus. Lancet 2001; 358(9275)38–39
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friedman H, Pross S, Klein TW. Addictive drugs and their relationship with infectious diseases. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 2006; 47(3)330–342
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gardner ID. The effect of aging on susceptibility to infection. Rev Infect Dis 1980; 2(5)801–10
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gavrilin MA, Mathes LE, Podell M. Methamphetamine enhances cell-associated feline immunodeficiency virus replication in astrocytes. Journal of Neurovirology 2002; 8(3)240–249
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gelman BB, Schuenke K. Brain aging in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: increased ubiquitin-protein conjugate is correlated with decreased synaptic protein but not amyloid plaque accumulation. Journal of Neurovirology 2004; 10(2)98–108
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giometto B, An SF, Groves M, Scaravilli T, Geddes JF, Miller R, et al. Accumulation of beta-amyloid precursor protein in HIV encephalitis: Relationship with neuropsychological abnormalities. Ann Neurol 1997; 42(1)34–40
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Goetz MB, Boscardin WJ, Wiley D, Alkasspooles S. Decreased recovery of CD4 lymphocytes in older HIV-infected patients beginning highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 2001; 15(12)1576–1579
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldstein RZ, Volkow ND. Drug addiction and its underlying neurobiological basis: Neuroimaging evidence for the involvement of the frontal cortex. American Journal of Psychiatry 2002; 159(10)1642–1652
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonzalez R, Jacobus J, Martin EM. Investigating neurocognitive features of hepatitis C virus infection in drug users: potential challenges and lessons learned from the HIV literature. Clinical Infectious Diseases 2005; 41(Suppl.1)S45–49
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Goodkin K, Shapshak P, Metsch LR, McCoy CB, Crandall KA, Kumar M, et al. Cocaine abuse and HIV-1 infection: Epidemiology and neuropathogenesis. Journal of Neuroimmunology 1998; 83(1–2)88–101
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green DA, Masliah E, Vinters HV, Beizai P, Moore DJ, Achim CL. Brain deposition of beta-amyloid is a common pathologic feature in HIV positive patients. AIDS 2005; 19(4)407–411
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green JE, Saveanu RV, Bornstein RA. The effect of previous alcohol abuse on cognitive function in HIV infection. American Journal of Psychiatry 2004; 161(2)249–254
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hardy DJ, Hinkin C, Satz P, Stenquist P, Van Gorp W, Moore L. Age Differences and Neurocognitive Performance in HIV-Infected Adults. New Zealand Journal of Psychology 1999; 28(2)94–101
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hilsabeck RC, Castellon SA, Hinkin CH. Neuropsychological aspects of coinfection with HIV and hepatitis C virus. Clinical Infectious Diseases 2005; 41(Suppl.1)S38–44
   Google Scholar
• In SW, Son EW, Rhee DK, Pyo S. Methamphetamine administration produces immunomodulation in mice. Journal of Toxicol Environ Health A 2005; 68(23–24)2133–2145
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Izycka-Swieszewska E, Zçtowska A, Rzepko R, Gross M, Borowska-Lehman J. Vasculopathy and amyloid beta reactivity in brains of patients with acquired immune deficiency (AIDS). Folia Neuropathol 2000; 38(4)175–182
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Janssen RS. Epidemiology of human immunodeficiency virus infection and the neurologic complications of the infection. Semin Neurol 1992; 12(1)10–17
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jernigan TL, Gamst AC, Archibald SL, Fennema-Notestine C, Mindt MR, Marcotte TD, et al. Effects of methamphetamine dependence and HIV infection on cerebral morphology. American Journal of Psychiatry 2005; 162(8)1461–1472
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaufmann GR, Bloch M, Finlayson R, Zaunders J, Smith D, Cooper DA. The extent of HIV-1-related immunodeficiency and age predict the long-term CD4 T lymphocyte response to potent antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 2002; 16(3)359–367
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kendig NE, Adler WH. The implications of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome for gerontology research and geriatric medicine. Journal of Gerontology 1990; 45(3)M77–81
   Google Scholar
• Khanlou N, Chana G, Cherner M, Moore DJ, Lazzaretto D, Grant I, et al. Increased frequency of -synuclein in the substantia nigra in HIV infection, (submitted)
   Google Scholar
• Klonoff DC, Andrews BT, Obana WG. Stroke associated with cocaine use. Arch Neurol 1989; 46(9)989–993
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Langford D, Adame A, Grigorian A, Grant I, McCutchan JA, Ellis RJ, et al. Patterns of selective neuronal damage in methamphetamine-user AIDS patients. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 2003; 34(5)467–474
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Langford D, Grigorian A, Hurford R, Adame A, Crews L, Masliah E. The role of mitochondrial alterations in the combined toxic effects of human immunodeficiency virus Tat protein and methamphetamine on calbindin positive-neurons. Journal of Neurovirology 2004; 10(6)327–337
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laskus T, Operskalski EA, Radkowski M, Wilkinson J, Mack WJ, de Giacomo M, et al. Negative-strand hepatitis C virus (HCV) RNA in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from anti-HCV-positive/HIV-infected women. Journal of Infectious Diseases 2007; 195(1)124–133
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laskus T, Radkowski M, Adair DM, Wilkinson J, Scheck AC, Rakela J. Emerging evidence of hepatitis C virus neuroinvasion. AIDS 2005; 19(Suppl.3)S140–S144
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lederman MM, McKinnis R, Kelleher D, Cutrell A, Mellors J, Neisler M, et al. Cellular restoration in HIV infected persons treated with abacavir and a protease inhibitor: Age inversely predicts naive CD4 cell count increase. AIDS 2000; 14(17)2635–2642
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Letendre S, Paulino AD, Rockenstein E, Adame A, Crews L, Cherner M, et al. Pathogenesis of hepatitis C virus coinfection in the brains of patients infected with HIV. Journal of Infectious Diseases 2007; 196(3)361–370
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li Y, Wang X, Tian S, Guo CJ, Douglas SD, Ho WZ. Methadone enhances human immunodeficiency virus infection of human immune cells. Journal of Infectious Diseases 2002; 185(1)118–122
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Maggi F, Giorgi M, Fornai C, Morrica A, Vatteroni ML, Pistello M, et al. Detection and quasispecies analysis of hepatitis C virus in the cerebrospinal fluid of infected patients. Journal of Neurovirology 1999; 5(3)319–323
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mankowski JL, Queen SE, Tarwater PM, Fox KJ, Perry VH. Accumulation of beta-amyloid precursor protein in axons correlates with CNS expression of SIV gp41. Journal of Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2002; 61(1)85–90
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Maragos WF, Young KL, Turchan JT, Guseva M, Pauly JR, Nath A, et al. Human immunodeficiency virus-1 Tat protein and methamphetamine interact synergistically to impair striatal dopaminergic function. Journal of Neurochemistry 2002; 83(4)955–963
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Martin EM, Novak RM, Fendrich M, Vassileva J, Gonzalez R, Grbesic S, et al. Stroop performance in drug users classified by HIV and hepatitis C virus serostatus. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 2004; 10(2)298–300
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin EM, Pitrak DL, Rains N, Grbesic S, Pursell K, Nunnally G, et al. Delayed nonmatch-to-sample performance in HIV-seropositive and HIV-seronegative polydrug abusers. Neuropsychology 2003; 17(2)283–288
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Martin EM, Pitrak DL, Weddington W, Rains NA, Nunnally G, Nixon H, et al. Cognitive impulsivity and HIV serostatus in substance dependent males. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 2004; 10(7)931–938
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin EM, Sullivan TS, Reed RA, Fletcher TA, Pitrak DL, Weddington W, et al. Auditory working memory in HIV-1 infection. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 2001; 7(1)20–26
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Massi P, Vaccani A, Parolaro D. Cannabinoids, immune system and cytokine network. Current Pharm Des 2006; 12(24)3135–3146
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyerhoff DJ. Effects of alcohol and HIV infection on the central nervous system. Alcohol Res Health 2001; 25(4)288–298
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Morgello S, Estanislao L, Ryan E, Gerits P, Simpson D, Verma S, et al. Effects of hepatic function and hepatitis C virus on the nervous system assessment of advanced-stage HIV-infected individuals. AIDS 2005; 19(Suppl.3)S116–S122
   Google Scholar
• Morsica GBMT, Novati R, Uberti Foppa C, Castagna A, Lazzarin A. Detection of hepatitis C virus genomic sequences in the cerebrospinal fluid of HIV-infected patients. Journal of Medical Virology 1997; 53: 252–254
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nath A, Anderson C, Jones M, Maragos W, Booze R, Mactutus C, et al. Neurotoxicity and dysfunction of dopaminergic systems associated with AIDS dementia. Journal of Psychopharmacology 2000; 14(3)222–227
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nath A, Hauser KF, Wojna V, Booze RM, Maragos W, Prendergast M, et al. Molecular basis for interactions of HIV and drugs of abuse. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 2002; 31(Suppl.2)S62–S69
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nath A, Hersh LB. Tat and amyloid: Multiple interactions. AIDS 2005; 19(2)203–204
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nebuloni M, Pellegrinelli A, Ferri A, Bonetto S, Boldorini R, Vago L, et al. Beta amyloid precursor protein and patterns of HIV p24 immunohistochemistry in different brain areas of AIDS patients. AIDS 2001; 15(5)571–575
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Parsons TD, Tucker KA, Hall CD, Robertson WT, Eron JJ, Fried MW, et al. Neurocognitive functioning and HAART in HIV and hepatitis C virus co-infection. AIDS 2006; 20(12)1591–1595
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pellegrino T, Bayer BM. In vivo effects of cocaine on immune cell function. Journal of Neuroimmunology 1998; 83(1–2)139–147
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perry W, Carlson MD, Barakat F, Hilsabeck RC, Schiehser DM, Mathews C, et al. Neuropsychological test performance in patients co-infected with hepatitis C virus and HIV. AIDS 2005; 19(Suppl.3)S79–S84
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peterson PK, Gekker G, Hu S, Lokensgard J, Portoghese PS, Chao CC. Endomorphin-1 potentiates HIV-1 expression in human brain cell cultures: Implication of an atypical mu-opioid receptor. Neuropharmacology 1999; 38(2)273–278
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peterson PK, Molitor TW, Chao CC. The opioid-cytokine connection. Journal of Neuroimmunology 1998; 83(1–2)63–69
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pfefferbaum A, Adalsteinsson E, Sullivan EV. Cortical NAA deficits in HIV infection without dementia: Influence of alcoholism comorbidity. Neuropsychopharmacology 2005; 30(7)1392–1399
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pfefferbaum A, Rosenbloom MJ, Adalsteinsson E, & Sullivan EV. Diffusion tensor imaging with quantitative fibre tracking in HIV infection and alcoholism comorbidity: Synergistic white matter damage. 2006, Brain, ?
   Google Scholar
• Pfefferbaum A, Rosenbloom MJ, Rohlfing T, Adalsteinsson E, Kemper CA, Deresinski S, et al. Contribution of alcoholism to brain dysmorphology in HIV infection: Effects on the ventricles and corpus callosum. Neuroimage 2006; 33(1)239–251
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pfefferbaum A, Rosenbloom M, Sullivan EV. Alcoholism and AIDS: Magnetic resonance imaging approaches for detecting interactive neuropathology. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2002; 26(7)1031–1046
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phillips AN, Lee CA, Elford J, Webster A, Janossy G, Timms A, et al. More rapid progression to AIDS in older HIV-infected people: The role of CD4+ T-cell counts. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome 1991; 4(10)970–975
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quang-Cantagrel ND, Wallace MS, Ashar N, Mathews C. Long-term methadone treatment: Effect on CD4+ lymphocyte counts and HIV-1 plasma RNA level in patients with HIV infection. European Journal of Pain 2001; 5(4)415–420
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Radkowski M, Wilkinson J, Nowicki M, Adair D, Vargas H, Ingui C, et al. Search for hepatitis C virus negative-strand RNA sequences and analysis of viral sequences in the central nervous system: Evidence of replication. Journal of Virology 2002; 76(2)600–608
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raja F, Sherriff FE, Morris CS, Bridges LR, Esiri MM. Cerebral white matter damage in HIV infection demonstrated using beta-amyloid precursor protein immunoreactivity. Acta Neuropathol 1997; 93(2)184–189
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rempel HC, Pulliam L. HIV-1 Tat inhibits neprilysin and elevates amyloid beta. AIDS 2005; 19(2)127–135
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Richardson JL, Nowicki M, Danley K, Martin EM, Cohen MH, Gonzalez R, et al. Neuropsychological functioning in a cohort of HIV- and hepatitis C virus-infected women. AIDS 2005; 19(15)1659–1667
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rippeth JD, Heaton RK, Carey CL, Marcotte TD, Moore DJ, Gonzalez R, et al. Methamphetamine dependence increases risk of neuropsychological impairment in HIV infected persons. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 2004; 10(1)1–14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rockstroh J, Konopnicki D, Soriano V, Kirk O, Antunes F, Knysz B, et al. Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C in the EuroSIDA Cohort: Prevalence and Effect on Mortality, AIDS Progression and Response to HAART. 2004, 11th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections,. p. 799, ?
   Google Scholar
• Rosenberg PS, Goedert JJ, Biggar RJ. Effect of age at seroconversion on the natural AIDS incubation distribution. Multicenter Hemophilia Cohort Study and the International Registry of Seroconverters. AIDS 1994; 8(6)803–810
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Roth MD, Tashkin DP, Whittaker KM, Choi R, Baldwin GC. Tetrahydrocannabinol suppresses immune function and enhances HIV replication in the huPBL-SCID mouse. Life Science 2005; 77(14)1711–1722
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rothlind JC, Greenfield TM, Bruce AV, Meyerhoff DJ, Flenniken DL, Lindgren JA, et al. Heavy alcohol consumption in individuals with HIV infection: effects on neuropsychological performance. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 2005; 11(1)70–83
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rothrock JF, Rubenstein R, Lyden PD. Ischemic stroke associated with methamphetamine inhalation. Neurology 1988; 38(4)589–592
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ryan EL, Morgello S, Isaacs K, Naseer M, Gerits P. Neuropsychiatric impact of hepatitis C on advanced HIV. Neurology 2004; 62(6)957–962
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saltzman RL, Peterson PK. Immunodeficiency of the elderly. Rev Infect Dis 1987; 9(6)1127–1139
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Satz P, Morgenstern H, Miller EN, Selnes OA, McArthur JC, Cohen BA, et al. Low education as a possible risk factor for cognitive abnormalities in HIV-1: Findings from the multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS). Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 1993; 6(5)503–511
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schulte T, Mueller-Oehring EM, Rosenbloom MJ, Pfefferbaum A, Sullivan EV. Differential effect of HIV infection and alcoholism on conflict processing, attentional allocation, and perceptual load: Evidence from a Stroop Match-to-Sample task. Biol Psychiatry 2005; 57(1)67–75
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schweitzer C, Keller F, Schmitt MP, Jaeck D, Adloff M, Schmitt C, et al. Morphine stimulates HIV replication in primary cultures of human Kupffer cells. Res Virol 1991; 142(2–3)189–195
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stanley LC, Mrak RE, Woody RC, Perrot LJ, Zhang S, Marshak DR, et al. Glial cytokines as neuropathogenic factors in HIV infection: Pathogenic similarities to Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1994; 53(3)231–238
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stefano GB. Substance abuse and HIV-gp120: Are opiates protective?. Arch Immunol Ther Exp (Warsz) 1999; 47(2)99–106
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stern Y. What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 2002; 8(3)448–460
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strickland TL, Miller BL, Kowell A, Stein R. Neurobiology of cocaine-induced organic brain impairment: contributions from functional neuroimaging. Neuropsychol Rev 1998; 8(1)1–9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Taylor MJ, Alhassoon OM, Schweinsburg BC, Videen JS, Grant I. MR spectroscopy in HIV and stimulant dependence HNRC Group. HIV Neurobehavioral Research Center. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 2000; 6(1)83–85
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Theodore S, Cass WA, Maragos WF. Methamphetamine and human immunodeficiency virus protein Tat synergize to destroy dopaminergic terminals in the rat striatum. Neuroscience 2006; 137(3)925–935
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Toborek M, Lee YW, Flora G, Pu H, Andras IE, Wylegala E, et al. Mechanisms of the blood-brain barrier disruption in HIV–1 infection. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2005; 25(1)181–199
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tomlinson GS, Simmonds P, Busuttil A, Chiswick A, Bell JE. Upregulation of microglia in drug users with and without pre-symptomatic HIV infection. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 1999; 25(5)369–379
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tsuboi Y, Ahlskog JE, Apaydin H, Parisi JE, Dickson DW. Lewy bodies are not increased in progressive supranuclear palsy compared with normal controls. Neurology 2001; 57: 1675–1678
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tyor WR, Middaugh LD. Do alcohol and cocaine abuse alter the course of HIV-associated dementia complex?. Journal of Leukoc Biol 1999; 65(4)475–481
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• UNAIDS. 2006, Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic, ?
   Google Scholar
• Valcour V, Shikuma C, Shiramizu B, Watters M, Poff P, Selnes OA, et al. Age, apolipoprotein E4, and the risk of HIV dementia: The Hawaii Aging with HIV Cohort. Journal of Neuroimmunology 2004; 157(1–2)197–202
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valcour V, Shikuma C, Shiramizu B, Watters M, Poff P, Selnes O, et al. Higher frequency of dementia in older HIV-1 individuals: The Hawaii Aging with HIV-1 Cohort. Neurology 2004; 63(5)822–827
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valcour VG, Shikuma CM, Watters MR, Sacktor NC. Cognitive impairment in older HIV-1-seropositive individuals: Prevalence and potential mechanisms. AIDS 2004; 18(Suppl.1)S79–86
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vallejo R, Leon-Casasola O, Benyamin R. Opioid therapy and immunosuppression: A review. American Journal Ther 2004; 11(5)354–365
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• van Gorp WG, Miller EN, Marcotte TD, Dixon W, Paz D, Selnes O, et al. The relationship between age and cognitive impairment in HIV-1 infection: Findings from the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study and a clinical cohort. Neurology 1994; 44(5)929–935
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vehmas A, Lieu J, Pardo CA, McArthur JC, Gartner S. Amyloid precursor protein expression in circulating monocytes and brain macrophages from patients with HIV-associated cognitive impairment. Journal of Neuroimmunol 2004; 157(1–2)99–110
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Verdejo-Garcia A, Lopez-Torrecillas F, Gimenez CO, Perez-Garcia M. Clinical implications and methodological challenges in the study of the neuropsychological correlates of cannabis, stimulant, and opioid abuse. Neuropsychological Review 2004; 14(1)1–41
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Veugelers PJ, Strathdee SA, Kaldor JM, Shafer KA, Moss AR, Schechter MT, et al. Associations of age, immunosuppression, and AIDS among homosexual men in the Tricontinental Seroconverter Study. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes Hum Retrovirol 1997; 14(5)435–441
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• von Giesen HJ, Heintges T, Abbasi-Boroudjeni N, Kucukkoylu S, Koller H, Haslinger BA, et al. Psychomotor slowing in hepatitis C and HIV infection. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 2004; 35(2)131–137
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang AM, Suojanen JN, Colucci VM, Rumbaugh CL, Hollenberg NK. Cocaine- and methamphetamine-induced acute cerebral vasospasm: An angiographic study in rabbits. American Journal of Neuroradiology 1990; 11(6)1141–1146
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang X, Tan N, Douglas SD, Zhang T, Wang YJ, Ho WZ. Morphine inhibits CD8+ T cell-mediated, noncytolytic, anti-HIV activity in latently infected immune cells. Journal of Leukoc Biol 2005; 78(3)772–776
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wang Y, Watson RR. Is alcohol consumption a cofactor in the development of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome?. Alcohol 1995; 12(2)105–109
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wiley CA. Implications of the neuropathology of HIV encephalitis for the pathogenesis of Alzheimer disease. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 1987; 1(4)236–250
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wilkie FL, Goodkin K, Khamis I, van Zuilen MH, Lee D, Lecusay R, et al. Cognitive functioning in younger and older HIV-1-infected adults. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 2003; 33(Suppl.2)S93–S105
   Google Scholar
• Yu Q, Zhang D, Walston M, Zhang J, Liu Y, Watson RR. Chronic methamphetamine exposure alters immune function in normal and retrovirus-infected mice. Int Immunopharmacol 2002; 2(7)951–962
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang L, Looney D, Taub D, Chang SL, Way D, Witte MH, et al. Cocaine opens the blood-brain barrier to HIV-1 invasion. Journal of Neurovirology 1998; 4(6)619–626
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar