Test format and corrective feedback modify the effect of testing on long-term retention

References

• Anastasio , P. A. , Rose , K. C. and Chapman , J. 1999 . Can the media create public opinion? A social-identity approach . Current Directions in Psychological Science , 8 : 152 – 155 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson , R. C. and Biddle , W. B. 1975 . “ On asking people questions about what they are reading ” . In The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory , Edited by: Bower , G. H. Vol. 9 , 89 – 132 . New York : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Anderson , R. S. 1998 . Why talk about different ways to grade? The shift from traditional assessment to alternative assessment . New Directions for Teaching and Learning , 74 : 5 – 16 .
   Google Scholar
• Auble , P. M. and Franks , J. J. 1978 . The effects of effort toward comprehension on recall . Memory and Cognition , 6 : 20 – 25 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bahrick , H. A. and Hall , L. K. 2005 . The importance of retrieval failures to long-term retention: A metacognitive explanation of the spacing effect . Journal of Memory and Language , 52 : 566 – 577 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bjork , R. A. 1975 . “ Retrieval as a memory modifier: An interpretation of negative recency and related phenomena ” . In Information processing and cognition: The Loyola symposium , Edited by: Solso , R. L. 123 – 144 . Hillsdale, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Bjork , R. A. , Hofacker , C. , & Burns , M. J. ( 1981 , November ). An “effectiveness-ratio” measure of tests as learning events . Paper presented at the 22nd annual meeting of the Psychonomic Society, Philadelphia, PA .
   Google Scholar
• Blaxton , T. A. 1989 . Investigating dissociations among memory measures: Support for a transfer-appropriate processing framework . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition , 10 : 3 – 9 .
   Google Scholar
• Butler , A. C. , Marsh , E. J. , Goode , M. K. , & Roediger , H. L. (2006) . When additional multiple-choice lures aid versus hinder later memory . Applied Cognitive Psychology , 20 , 941 – 956 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Butler , A. C. , & Roediger , H. L. ( 2006 , May ). Feedback neutralizes the detrimental effects of multiple-choice testing . Poster presentation at the 18th annual convention of the Association for Psychological Science, New York .
   Google Scholar
• Butterfield , B. and Metcalfe , J. 2006 . The correction of errors committed with high confidence . Metacognition and Learning , 1 : 69 – 84 .
   Google Scholar
• Carpenter , S. K. and DeLosh , E. L. 2006 . Impoverished cue support enhances subsequent retention: Support for the elaborative retrieval explanation of the testing effect . Memory and Cognition , 34 : 268 – 276 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carrier , M. and Pashler , H. 1992 . The influence of retrieval on retention . Memory and Cognition , 20 : 633 – 642 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carroll , M. , Campbell-Ratcliffe , J. , Murnane , H. and Perfect , T. 2007 . Retrieval-induced forgetting in educational contexts: Monitoring, expertise, text integration, and test format . European Journal of Cognitive Psychology , 19 : 580 – 606 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan , J. C. K. , McDermott , K. B. and Roediger , H. L. 2006 . Retrieval-induced facilitation: Initially nontested material can benefit from prior testing of related material . Journal of Experimental Psychology: General , 135 : 553 – 571 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Darley , C. F. and Murdock , B. B. Jr . 1971 . Effects of prior free recall testing on final recall and recognition . Journal of Experimental Psychology , 91 : 66 – 73 .
   Google Scholar
• Dempster , F. N. 1992 . Using tests to promote learning: A neglected classroom resource . Journal of Research and Development in Education , 25 : 213 – 217 .
   Google Scholar
• Dempster , F. N. 1996 . “ Distributing and managing the conditions of encoding and practice ” . In Memory , Edited by: Bjork , E. L. and Bjork , R. A. 317 – 344 . San Diego, CA : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Dempster , F. N. and Perkins , P. G. 1993 . Revitalizing classroom assessment: Using tests to promote learning . Journal of Instructional Psychology , 20 : 197 – 203 .
   Google Scholar
• Duchastel , P. C. and Nungester , R. J. 1982 . Testing effects measured with alternate test forms . Journal of Educational Research , 75 : 309 – 313 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eagly , A. H. , Kulesa , P. , Chen , S. and Chaiken , S. 2001 . Do attitudes affect memory? Tests of the congeniality hypothesis . Current Directions in Psychological Science , 10 : 5 – 9 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garry , M. and Polaschek , D. L. L. 2000 . Imagination and memory . Current Directions in Psychological Science , 9 : 6 – 10 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gates , A. I. (1917) . Recitation as a factor in memorizing . Archives of Psychology , No. 40 , 1 – 104 .
   Google Scholar
• Glover , J. A. 1989 . The “testing” phenomenon: Not gone but nearly forgotten . Journal of Educational Psychology , 81 : 392 – 399 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halpern , D. F. and Hakel , M. D. 2002 . Learning that lasts a lifetime: Teaching for long-term retention and transfer . New Directions for Teaching and Learning , 89 : 3 – 7 .
   Google Scholar
• Hanawalt , N. G. and Tarr , A. G. 1961 . The effect of recall upon recognition . Journal of Experimental Psychology , 62 : 361 – 367 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hogan , R. M. and Kintsch , W. 1971 . Differential effects of study and test trials on long-term recognition and recall . Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior , 10 : 562 – 567 .
   Google Scholar
• Jacoby , L. L. 1991 . A process dissociation framework: Separating automatic from intentional uses of memory . Journal of Memory and Language , 30 : 513 – 541 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones , H. E. 1923 . Experimental studies of college teaching: The effect of examination on permanence of learning . Archives of Psychology , : 5 – 70 .
   Google Scholar
• Kulhavy , R. W. 1977 . Feedback in written instruction . Review of Educational Research , 47 : 211 – 232 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kulhavy , R. W. and Stock , W. A. 1989 . Feedback in written instruction: The place of response certitude . Educational Psychology Review , 1 : 279 – 308 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kulik , J. A. and Kulik , C.-L. C. 1988 . Timing of feedback and verbal learning . Review of Educational Research , 58 : 79 – 97 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuo , T. M. and Hirshman , E. 1996 . Investigations of the testing effect . American Journal of Psychology , 109 : 451 – 464 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lachman , R. and Laughery , K. R. 1968 . Is a test trial a training trial in free recall learning? . Journal of Experimental Psychology , 76 : 40 – 50 .
   Google Scholar
• LaPorte , R. E. and Voss , J. F. 1975 . Retention of prose materials as a function of postacquisition testing . Journal of Educational Psychology , 67 : 259 – 266 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lockhart , R. S. 1975 . The facilitation of recognition by recall . Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior , 14 : 253 – 258 .
   Google Scholar
• Mandler , G. and Rabinowitz , J. C. 1981 . Appearance and reality: Does a recognition test really improve subsequent recall and recognition? . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory , 7 : 79 – 90 .
   Google Scholar
• Matlin , M. W. 2002 . Cognitive psychology and college-level pedagogy: Two siblings that rarely communicate . New Directions for Teaching and Learning , 89 : 87 – 103 .
   Google Scholar
• McDaniel , M. A. , Anderson , J. L. , Derbish , M. H. and Morrisette , N. 2007 . Testing the testing effect in the classroom . European Journal of Cognitive Psychology , 19 : 494 – 513 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McDaniel , M. A. and Fisher , R. P. 1991 . Tests and test feedback as learning sources . Contemporary Educational Psychology , 16 : 192 – 201 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McDaniel , M. A. , Kowitz , M. D. and Dunay , P. K. 1989 . Altering memory through recall: The effects of cue-guided retrieval processing . Memory and Cognition , 17 : 423 – 434 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morris , C. D. , Bransford , J. D. and Franks , J. J. 1977 . Levels of processing versus transfer appropriate processing . Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior , 16 : 519 – 533 .
   Google Scholar
• Newcombe , N. S. 2002 . Biology is to medicine as psychology is to education: True or false? . New Directions for Teaching and Learning , 89 : 9 – 18 .
   Google Scholar
• Nungester , R. J. and Duchastel , P. C. 1982 . Testing versus review: Effects on retention . Journal of Educational Psychology , 74 : 18 – 22 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pashler , H. , Cepeda , N. J. , Wixted , J. T. and Rohrer , D. 2005 . When does feedback facilitate learning of words? . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition , 31 : 3 – 8 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rayner , K. , Foorman , B. R. , Perfetti , C. A. , Pesetsky , D. and Seidenberg , M. S. 2001 . How psychological science informs the teaching of reading . Psychological Science in the Public Interest , 2 : 31 – 74 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roediger , H. L. and Karpicke , J. D. 2006a . The power of testing memory: Basic research and implications for educational practice . Perspectives on Psychological Science , 1 : 181 – 210 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roediger , H. L. and Karpicke , J. D. 2006b . Test-enhanced learning: Taking memory tests improves long-term retention . Psychological Science , 17 : 249 – 255 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roediger , H. L. and Marsh , E. J. 2005 . The positive and negative consequences of multiple-choice testing . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition , 31 : 1155 – 1159 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Runquist , W. N. 1983 . Some effects of remembering on forgetting . Memory and Cognition , 11 : 641 – 650 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Runquist , W. N. 1986 . The effect of testing on the forgetting of related and unrelated associates . Canadian Journal of Psychology , 40 : 65 – 76 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Runquist , W. N. 1987 . Retrieval specificity and the attenuation of forgetting by testing . Canadian Journal of Psychology , 41 : 84 – 90 .
   Google Scholar
• Schmidt , S. R. 1990 . A test of resource-allocation explanations of the generation effect . Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society , 28 : 93 – 96 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slamecka , N. J. and Fevreiski , J. 1983 . The generation effect when generation fails . Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior , 22 : 153 – 163 .
   Google Scholar
• Slamecka , N. J. and Graf , P. 1978 . The generation effect: Delineation of a phenomenon . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory , 4 : 592 – 604 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slamecka , N. J. and Katsaiti , L. T. 1988 . Normal forgetting of verbal lists as a function of prior testing . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition , 14 : 716 – 727 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snooks , M. K. 2004 . Using practice tests on a regular basis to improve student learning . New Directions for Teaching and Learning , 100 : 109 – 113 .
   Google Scholar
• Spitzer , H. F. 1939 . Studies in retention . Journal of Educational Psychology , 30 : 641 – 656 .
   Google Scholar
• Thompson , C. P. , Wenger , S. K. and Bartling , C. A. 1978 . How recall facilitates subsequent recall: A reappraisal . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory , 4 : 210 – 221 .
   Google Scholar
• Thorndike , E. L. (1913) . Educational psychology: Vol. 1. The original nature of man . New York : Columbia University .
   Google Scholar
• Treiman , R. 2000 . The foundations of literacy . Current Directions in Psychological Science , 9 : 89 – 92 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tulving , E. 1967 . The effects of presentation and recall of material in free-recall learning . Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior , 6 : 175 – 184 .
   Google Scholar
• Tulving , E. and Pearlstone , Z. 1966 . Availability versus accessibility of information in memory for words . Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior , 5 : 381 – 391 .
   Google Scholar
• US Department of Education . (2003) . Identifying and implementing educational practices supported by rigorous evidence: A user friendly guide . Washington, DC : Author .
   Google Scholar
• Wenger , S. K. , Thompson , C. P. and Bartling , C. A. 1980 . Recall facilitates subsequent recognition . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory , 6 : 135 – 144 .
   Google Scholar
• Wheeler , M. A. , Ewers , M. and Buonanno , J. F. 2003 . Different rates of forgetting following study versus test trials . Memory , 11 : 571 – 580 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wheeler , M. A. and Roediger , H. L. III . 1992 . Disparate effects of repeated testing: Reconciling Ballard's (1913) and Bartlett's (1932) results . Psychological Science , 3 : 240 – 245 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar