Biological effects of tritium on fish cells in the concentration range of international drinking water standards

References

• Adam-Guillermin C, Pereira S, Della-Vedova C, Hinton T, Garnier-Laplace J. 2012. Genotoxic and reprotoxic effects of tritium and external gamma irradiation on aquatic animals. Rev Environ Contam Tox. 220:67–103.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson SL, Wild GC. 1994. Linking genotoxic responses and reproductive success in ecotoxicology. Environ Health Perspect. 102(Suppl. 12): 9–12.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andersson P, Garnier Laplace J, Beresford N, Copplestone D, Howard B, Howe P, Oughton D, Whitehouse P. 2009. Protection of the environment from ionising radiation in a regulatory context (protect): proposed numerical benchmark values. J Environ Radioact. 100:1100–1108.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Audette-Stuart M, Kim SB, McMullin D, Festarini A, Yankovich TL, Carr J, Mulpuru S. 2011a. Adaptive response in frogs chronically exposed to low doses of ionizing radiation in the environment. J Environ Radioact. 102:566–573.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Audette-Stuart M, Kim SB, McMullin D, Festarini A, Yankovich TL, Carr J, Mulpuru S. 2011b. Adaptive response in frogs chronically exposed to low doses of ionizing radiation in the environment. J Environ Radioact. 102:566–573.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonham K, Donaldson LR. 1972. Sex ratios and retardation of gonadal development in chronically gamma-irradiated chinook salmon smolts. Trans Am Fisheries Soc. 101:428–434.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonham K, Donaldson LR, Foster RF, Welander AD, Seymour AH. 1948. The effect of X-ray on mortality, weight, length, and counts of erythrocytes and hematopoietic cells in fingerling chinook salmon Onchorhynchus-tschawytscha walbaum. Growth. 12:107–121.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Boreham DR, Dolling JA, Somers C, Quinn J, Mitchel RE. 2006. The adaptive response and protection against heritable mutations and fetal malformation. Dose-Response. 4:317–326.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Boreham DR, McCann RA, Mitchel REJ. 1997. The effect of dose rate and prior low dose on radiation-induced myeloid leukemia in mice. BNES. 1997:201–206.
   Google Scholar
• Boreham DR, Mitchel RE. 1991. DNA lesions that signal the induction of radioresistance and DNA repair in yeast. Radiat Res. 128:19–28.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boreham DR, Mitchel RE. 1993. DNA repair in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii induced by heat shock and gamma radiation. Radiat Res. 135:365–371.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brooks AL, Couch LA, Chad SA. 2013. Commentary: what is the health risk of 740 Bq L−1 of tritium? A perspective. Health Phys. 104:108–114.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Broome EJ, Brown DL, Mitchel RE. 1999. Adaptation of human fibroblasts to radiation alters biases in DNA repair at the chromosomal level. Int J Radiat Biol. 75:681–690.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Broome EJ, Brown DL, Mitchel RE. 2002. Dose responses for adaption to low doses of (60)Co gamma rays and (3)H beta particles in normal human fibroblasts. Radiat Res. 158:181–186.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown JE, Jones SR, Saxén R, Thørring H, Batlle JV. 2004. Radiation doses to aquatic organisms from natural radionuclides. J Radiol Prot. 24:A63–77.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bruce Power. 2014. 2013 environmental monitoring program report. Kincardine, ON. (B-REP-07000-00006).
   Google Scholar
• Cai L, Cherian MG. 1996. Adaptive response to ionizing radiation-induced chromosome aberrations in rabbit lymphocytes: effect of pre-exposure to zinc, and copper salts. Mut Res. 369:233–241.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cautillo C. 2014. 2013 results of environmental monitoring programs. Ontario Power Generation. (N-REP-03443-10013).
   Google Scholar
• Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission (CNSC). 2008. Standards and guidelines for tritium in drinking water. Ottawa, ON Canada: CNSC.
   Google Scholar
• Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission (CNSC). 2009a. Investigation of the environmental fate of tritium in the atmosphere. Ottawa, ON Canada: CNSC.
   Google Scholar
• Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission (CNSC). 2009b. Tritium releases and dose consequences in Canada in 2006. Ottawa, ON Canada: CNSC.
   Google Scholar
• Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission (CNSC). 2011. Tritium studies project synthesis report. Ottawa, ON Canada: CNSC.
   Google Scholar
• Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission (CNSC). 2013. Environmental fate of tritium in soil and vegetation. Ottawa, ON Canada: CNSC.
   Google Scholar
• Cooper GM. 2000. The eukaryotic cell cycle. In: The cell: a molecular approach. 2nd ed. Washington (DC): ASM Press.
   Google Scholar
• Copplestone D. 2012. Application of radiological protection measures to meet different environmental protection criteria. Ann ICRP. 41:263–274.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cortes F, Dominguez I, Mateos S, Pinero J, Mateos JC. 1990. Evidence for an adaptive response to radiation damage in plant cells conditioned with X-rays or incorporated tritium. Int J Radiat Biol. 57:537–541.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cregan SP, Brown DL, Mitchel RE. 1999. Apoptosis and the adaptive response in human lymphocytes. Int J Radiat Biol. 75:1087–1094.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Delistraty D. 2008. Radioprotection of nonhuman biota. J Environ Radioact. 99:1863–1869.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dingwall S, Mills CE, Phan N, Taylor K, Boreham DR. 2011. Human health and the biological effects of tritium in drinking water: prudent policy through science – addressing the ODWAC new recommendation. Dose-Response. 9:6–31.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donaldson LR, Bonham K. 1964. Effects of low-level chronic irradiation of Chinook and Coho salmon eggs and alevins. Trans Am Fisheries Soc. 93:333–341.
   Google Scholar
• Donaldson LR, Bonham K. 1970. Effects of chronic exposure of chinook salmon eggs and alevins to gamma irradiation. Trans Am Fisheries Soc. 99:112–119.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fairlie I. 2007. Tritium hazard report: pollution and radiation risk from Canadian nuclear facilities. Greenpeace.
   Google Scholar
• Feinendegen LE, Loken MK, Booz J, Muhlensiepen H, Sondhaus CA, Bond VP. 1995. Cellular mechanisms of protection and repair induced by radiation exposure and their consequences for cell system responses. Stem Cells. 13:7–20.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flores MJ, Pinero J, Ortiz T, Pastor N, Mateos JC, Cortes F. 1996. Both bovine and rabbit lymphocytes conditioned with hydrogen peroxide show an adaptive response to radiation damage. Mut Res. 372:9–15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foster RF, Donaldson LR, Welander AD, Bonham K, Seymour AH. 1949. The effect of embryos and young of rainbow trout from exposing the parent fish to X-rays. Growth. 13:119–142.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Galeriu D, Davis P, Raskob W, Melintescu A. 2008. Recent progresses in tritium radioecology and dosimetry. Fusion Sci Tech. 54:237–242.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galeriu D, Heling R, Melintescu A. 2005. The dynamics of tritium – including OBT – in the aquatic food chain. Fusion Sci Tech. 48:779–782.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghoneum MMH, Ijiri KI, Egami N. 1982. Effects of gamma-rays on morphology of the thymus of the adult fish of Oryzias-latipes. J Radiat Res. 23:253–259.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green LM, Dodds L, Miller AB, Tomkins DJ, Li J, Escobar M. 1997. Risk of congenital anomalies in children of parents occupationally exposed to low level ionising radiation. Occup Environ Med. 54:629–635.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harrison JD, Khursheed A, Lambert BE. 2002. Uncertainties in dose coefficients for intakes of tritiated water and organically bound forms of tritium by members of the public. Radiat Prot Dosim. 98:299–311.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Health Protection Agency. 2007. Review of the risks from tritium. (RCE-4). London.
   Google Scholar
• Hershberger WK, Bonham K, Donaldson LR. 1978. Chronic exposure of chinook salmon eggs and alevins to gamma-irradiation – effects on their return to freshwater as adults. Trans Am Fisheries Soc. 107:622–631.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Higley KA, Kocher DC, Real AG, Chambers DB. 2012. Relative biological effectiveness and radiation weighting factors in the context of animals and plants. Ann ICRP. 41:233–245.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Holtslander WJ, Harrison TE, Spagnolo DA. 1990. The Chalk River Tritium Extraction Plant. Fusion Engin Des. 12:357–363.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howard BJ. 2010. Protection of the environment from ionising radiation in a regulatory context – an overview of the PROTECT coordinated action project. J Radiol Prot. 30:195–214.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hyodo-Taguchi Y, Egami N. 1969. Change in dose-survival time relationship after X-irradiation during embyonic development in the fish, Oryzias latipes. J Radiat Res.10:121–125.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• International Commission on Radiation Protection (ICRP). 2008. Environmental protection – the concept and use of reference animals and plants. ICRP Publication 108. Vienna: Elsevier.
   Google Scholar
• Ikushima T. 1987. Chromosomal responses to ionizing radiation reminiscent of an adaptive response in cultured Chinese hamster cells. Mut Res. 180:215–221.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ikushima T. 1989. Radio-adaptive response: characterization of a cytogenetic repair induced by low-level ionizing radiation in cultured Chinese hamster cells. Mut Res. 227:241–246.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ina Y, Sakai K. 2004. Prolongation of life span associated with immunological modification by chronic low-dose-rate irradiation in MRL-lpr/lpr mice. Radiat Res. 161:168–173.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ina Y, Sakai K. 2005a. Activation of immunological network by chronic low-dose-rate irradiation in wild-type mouse strains: analysis of immune cell populations and surface molecules. Int J Radiat Biol. 81:721–729.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ina Y, Sakai K. 2005b. Further study of prolongation of life span associated with immunological modification by chronic low-dose-rate irradiation in MRL-lpr/lpr mice: effects of whole-life irradiation. Radiat Res. 163:418–423.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ina Y, Tanooka H, Yamada T, Sakai K. 2005. Suppression of thymic lymphoma induction by life-long low-dose-rate irradiation accompanied by immune activation in C57BL/6 mice. Radiat Res. 163:153–158.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson KC, Rouleau J. 1991. Tritium releases from the Pickering Nuclear Generating Station and birth defects and infant mortality in nearby communities 1971-1988 (AECB Project No. 7.156.1). Ottawa, ON Canada: Atomic Energy Control Board.
   Google Scholar
• Kalyanam K, Leilabadi A, El-Behairy O, Williams GID, Vogt HK. 2008. Tritium emission reduction at Darlington tritium removal facility using a bubbler system. Fusion Sci Technol. 54:301–304.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knowles JF. 1999. Long-term irradiation of the marine fish, the plaice (Pleuronectes platessa: an assessment of the effects on size and composition of the testes and of possible genotoxic changes in peripheral erythrocytes. Int J Radiat Biol. 75:773–782.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kocher DC, Hoffman FO. 2011. Drinking water standard for tritium – what’s the risk? Health Phys. 101:274–285.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larsson C. 2008. The ERICA Integrated Approach and its contribution to protection of the environment from ionising radiation. J Environ Radioact. 99:1361–1363.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Little MP, Wakeford R. 2008. Systematic review of epidemiological studies of exposure to tritium. J Radiol Prot. 28:9–32.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGregor JF, Newcombe HF. 1972. Decreased risk of embryo mortality following low doses of radiation to trout sperm. Radiat Res. 52:536–544.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLaughlin JR, Anderson TW, Clarke EA, King W. 1992. Occupational exposure of fathers to ionizing radiation and the risk of leukaemia in offspring a case-control study (AECB Project No. 7.156.1). Ottawa, ON Canada: Atomic Energy Control Board.
   Google Scholar
• McLaughlin JR, King WD, Anderson TW, Clarke EA, Ashmore JP. 1993. Paternal radiation exposure and leukaemia in offspring: the Ontario case-control study. BMJ. 307:959–966.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Melintescu A, Galeriu D. 2011. Dynamic model for tritium transfer in an aquatic food chain. Radiat Environ Biophys. 50:459–473.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Melintescu A, Galeriu D, Takeda H. 2007. Reassessment of tritium dose coefficients for the general public. Radiat Prot Dosim. 127:153–157.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchel RE, Gragtmans NJ, Morrison DP. 1990. Beta-radiation-induced resistance to MNNG initiation of papilloma but not carcinoma formation in mouse skin. Radiat Res. 121:180–186.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mossman KL. 2014. Cancer complexity and radiation protection. Health Phys. 107:73–79.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mothersill C, Seymour C. 2009. Communication of ionising radiation signals – a tale of two fish. Int J Radiat Biol. 85:909–919.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newcombe HF, McGregor JF. 1972. Increased embryo production following low doses of radiation to trout spermatozoa. Radiat Res. 51:402–409.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ontario Drinking Water Advisory Council (ODWAC). 2009. Report and advice on the Ontario drinking water quality standard for tritium. ODWAC.
   Google Scholar
• Olivieri G, Bodycote J, Wolff S. 1984. Adaptive response of human lymphocytes to low concentrations of radioactive thymidine. Science. 223:594–597.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Osborne RV. 2007. Review of the Greenpeace report: Tritium Hazard Report: Pollution and Radiation Risk from Canadian Nuclear Facilities. Deep River, ON Canada.
   Google Scholar
• Shimada Y, Egami N, Shima A. 1985b. Effect of heat on radiosensitivity at different developmental stages of embryos of the fish Oryzias-latipes. Int J Radiat Biol. 48:505–512.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shimada Y, Shima A, Egami N. 1985a. Effects of heat, release from hypoxia, cadmium and arsenite on radiation sensitivity of primordial germ-cells in the fish Oryzias-latipes. J Radiat Res. 26:411–417.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slavincu D, Galeriu D, Gheorghiu D, Meltinescu A, Slavincu E. 2007. RODOS expert module for the assessment of tritium impact in aquatic environment. Romanian Rep Phys. 59:861–870.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith GB, Grof Y, Navarrette A, Guilmette RA. 2011a. Exploring biological effects of low level radiation from the other side of background. Health Phys. 100:263–265.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Smith R, Wang J, Mothersill C, Lee LEJ, Seymour C. 2015. Proteomic responses in the gills of fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas, Rafinesque, 1820) after 6 months and 2 years of continuous exposure to environmentally relevant dietary 226Ra. Int J Radiat Biol. 91:248–256.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith RW, Mothersill C, Hinton T, Seymour CB. 2011b. Exposure to low level chronic radiation leads to adaptation to a subsequent acute X-ray dose and communication of modified acute X-ray induced bystander signals in medaka (Japanese rice fish, Oryzias latipes). Int J Radiat Biol. 87:1011–1022.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sugg DW, Chesser RK, Brooks JA, Grasman BT. 1995. The association of DNA-damage to concentrations of mercury and radiocesium in largemouth bass. Environ Toxicol Chem. 14:661–668.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Theodorakis CW, Blaylock BG, Shugart LR. 1997. Genetic ecotoxicology I: DNA integrity and reproduction in mosquitofish exposed in situ to radionuclides. Ecotoxicol. 6:205–218.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Theodorakis CW, Shugart LR. 1997. Genetic ecotoxicology II: population genetic structure in mosquitofish exposed in situ to radionuclides. Ecotoxicol. 6:335–354.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Theodorakis CW, Shugart LR. 1998. Genetic ecotoxicology III: the relationship between DNA strand breaks and genotype in mosquitofish exposed to radiation. Ecotoxicol. 7:227–236.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tritium Awareness Project. 2009. An overview of the serious problems posed by tritium in Canada. [cited 8/26/2015 2015]. Available from: http://tapcanada.org/wordpress/?page_id =403
   Google Scholar
• Trosko JE. 1998. Hierarchical and cybernetic nature of biologic systems and their relevance to homeostatic adaptation to low-level exposures to oxidative stress-inducing agents. Environ Health Perspect. 106(Suppl. 1):331–339.
   Google Scholar
• Ulsh BA, Miller SM, Mallory FF, Mitchel RE, Morrison DP, Boreham DR. 2004. Cytogenetic dose-response and adaptive response in cells of ungulate species exposed to ionizing radiation. J Environ Radioact. 74:73–81.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission (USNRC). 2006. Liquid radioactive release lessons learned task force final report. Washington (DC): USNRC.
   Google Scholar
• United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission (USNRC). 2012. Underground pipes at nuclear reactors. Washington DC: U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Comission. Available from http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/fact-sheets/buried-pipes-fs.pdf
   Google Scholar
• United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission (USNRC). 2013. Radioactive effluents from nuclear power plants, Annual report 2009. Washington (DC): USNRC.
   Google Scholar
• Wanigaratne S, Holowaty E, Jiang H, Norwood TA, Pietrusiak MA, Brown P. 2013. Estimating cancer risk in relation to tritium exposure from routine operation of a nuclear-generating station in Pickering, Ontario. Chron Diseases Injuries in Canada. 33:247–256.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Welander AD, Donaldson LR, Foster RF, Bonham K, Seymour AH. 1948. The effects of Roentgen rays on embryos and larvae of the Chinook salmon. Growth. 12:203–242.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wiencke JK, Afzal V, Olivieri G, Wolff S. 1986. Evidence that the [3H]thymidine-induced adaptive response of human lymphocytes to subsequent doses of X-rays involves the induction of a chromosomal repair mechanism. Mutagenesis. 375–380.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woodhead DS. 1977. Effects of chronic irradiation on breeding performance of guppy, Poecilia-reticulata (osteichthyes-teleostei). Int J Radiat Biol. 32:1–22.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu Y, Greenstock CL, Trivedi A, Mitchel RE. 1996. Occupational levels of radiation exposure induce surface expression of interleukin-2 receptors in stimulated human peripheral blood lymphocytes. Radiat Environ Biophys. 35:89–93.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yankovich TL, Kim SB, Baumgartner F, Galeriu D, Melintescu A, Miyamoto K, Saito M, Siclet F, Davis P. 2011. Measured and modelled tritium concentrations in freshwater Barnes mussels (Elliptio complanata) exposed to an abrupt increase in ambient tritium levels. J Environ Radioact. 102:26–34.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zablotska LB, Lane RS, Thompson PA. 2014. A reanalysis of cancer mortality in Canadian nuclear workers (1956–1994) based on revised exposure and cohort data. Br J Cancer. 110:214–223.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar