Public sector expatriate managers: psychological adjustment, personal characteristics and job factorsFootnote1

1. Disclaimer: The Department of Defense Office of Freedom of Information and Security Review (OFOISR) has cleared the open publication of this article. The views expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not reflect the official policy or position of the Department of Defense or the US Government.

References

• Anderson , B.A. 2001 . Expatriate Management: An Australian Tri-sector Comparative Study . Thunderbird International Business Review , 43 ( 1 ) : 33 – 51 .
   Google Scholar
• Anderzen , I. and Arnetz , B.B. 1997 . Psychophysiological Reactions During the First Year of Foreign Assignment: Results From a Controlled Longitudinal Study . Work & Stress , 11 ( 4 ) : 304 – 318 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andersen , I. and Arnetz , B.B. 1999 . Psychophysiological Reactions to International Adjustment: Results from a Controlled, Longitudinal Study . Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics , 68 : 67 – 75 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Andreason , A.W. 2003 . Expatriate Adjustment to Foreign Assignments . International Journal Commerce and Management , 13 ( 1 ) : 42 – 60 .
   Google Scholar
• Army Regulation 611–60. Attaché Duty
   Google Scholar
• Aryee , S. and Stone , R.J. 1996 . Work Experiences, Work Adjustment and Psychological Well–Being of Expatriate Employees in Hong Kong . International Journal of Human Resource Management , 7 ( 1 ) : 150 – 164 .
   Google Scholar
• Bach , S. and Della Rocca , G. 2000 . The Management Strategies of Public Service Employers in Europe . Industrial Relations Journal , 31 : 82 – 96 .
   Google Scholar
• Bandura , A. 1977 . Social Learning Theory , Englewood Cliffs, NJ : Prentice Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Berry , J. , Poortinga , Y. , Segall , M. and Dasen , P. 1993 . Cross-cultural Psychology, Research and Applications , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Bhanugopan , R. and Fish , A. 2006 . An Empirical Investigation of Job Burnout Among Expatriates . Personnel Review , 35 ( 4 ) : 449 – 468 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhaskar-Shrinivas , P. , Harrison , D.A. , Shaffer , M.A. and Luk , D.M. 2005 . Input-based and Time Based Models of International Adjustment: Meta-analytic Evidence and Theoretical Extensions . Academy of Management Journal , 48 ( 2 ) : 257 – 281 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Black , J.S. 1988 . Work Role Transitions: A Study of American Expatriate Managers in Japan . Journal of International Business Studies , 19 ( 2 ) : 277 – 294 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Black , J.S. and Gregersen , H.B. 1991 . The Other Half of the Picture: Antecedents of Spouse Cultural Adjustment . Journal of International Business Studies , 22 ( 3 ) : 461 – 477 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Black , J.S. and Mendenhall , M.E. 1991 . The U-curve Adjustment Hypothesis Revisited: A Review and Theoretical Framework . Journal of International Business Studies , 22 ( 2 ) : 225 – 247 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Black , J.S. and Mendenhall , M.E. 1990 . Cross-cultural Training Effectiveness: A Review and Theoretical Framework for Future Research . Academy of Management Review , 15 ( 1 ) : 113 – 136 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Black , J.S. , Mendenhall , M. and Oddou , G. 1991 . Toward a Comprehensive Model of International Adjustment: An Integration of Multiple Theoretical Perspectives . Academy of Management Review , 16 ( 2 ) : 291 – 317 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brett , J.M. 1980 . “ The Effect of Job Transfers on Employees and Their Families ” . In Current Concerns in Occupational Stress , Edited by: Cooper , C.L. and Payne , R. 99 – 136 . New York : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Caligiuri , P. , Phillips , J. , Lazarova , M. , Tarique , I. and Buergi , P. 2001 . The Theory of Met Expectations Applied to Expatriate Adjustment: The Role of Cross-cultural Training . International Journal of Human Resource Management , 12 : 357 – 372 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caplan , R.D. , Cobb , S. , French , J.R.P. , Van Herrison , R. and Pinneau , S.R. 1975 . Job Demands and Worker Health , Washington, DC : National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health .
   Google Scholar
• Carpenter , M.A. , Sanders , W.G. and Gregersen , H.B. 2001 . Bundling Human capital with Organizational Context: The Impact of International Experience on Multinational Firm Performance and CEO Pay . Academy of Management Journal , 44 : 493 – 511 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen , G. , Gully , S.M. and Eden , D. 2001 . Validation of a New Self-efficacy Scale . Organizational Research Methods , 4 ( 1 ) : 62 – 83 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Church , A. 1982 . Sojourner Adjustment . Psychological Bulletin , 91 ( 3 ) : 540 – 577 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crampton , S.M. and Wagner , J.A. III . 1994 . Percept–percept Inflation in Micro-organizational Research: An Investigation of Prevalence and Effect . Journal of Applied Psychology , 79 ( 1 ) : 67 – 76 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daily , C.M. , Certo , S.T. and Dalton , D.R. 2000 . International Experience in the Executive Suite: The Path to Prosperity? . Strategic Management Journal , 21 : 515 – 523 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dawis , R.W. and Lofquist , L.H. 1984 . A Psychological Theory of Work Adjustment , Minneapolis, MN : University of Minnesota Press .
   Google Scholar
• Deshpande , S.P. and Viswesvaran , C. 1992 . Is Cross-cultural Training of Expatriate Managers Effective? A Meta-analysis . International Journal of Intercultural Relations , 16 : 295 – 310 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dowling , P.J. , Welch , D.E. and Schuler , R.S. 1999 . International Human Resource Management: Managing People in a Multinational Context , 3rd ed. , Cincinnati, OH : Southwestern College Publishing .
   Google Scholar
• Early , P.C. 1987 . Intercultural Training for Managers: A Comparison of Documentary and Interpersonal Methods . Academy of Management Journal , 30 : 685 – 698 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forster , N. 2000 . The Myth of the International Manager . International Journal of Human Resource Management , 11 ( 1 ) : 126 – 142 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Furnham , A. and Bochner , S. 1986 . Culture Shock: Psychological Reactions to Unfamiliar Environments , London : Methuen .
   Google Scholar
• Goldberg , D. 1972 . The Detection of Psychiatric Illness by Questionnaire , London : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Gregersen , H. and Black , J.S. 1992 . Antecedents to Commitment to a Parent Company and a Foreign Operation . Academy of Management Review , 35 ( 1 ) : 65 – 90 .
   Google Scholar
• Grove , C.L. and Torbiörn , I. 1985 . A New Conceptualization of Intercultural Adjustment and the Goals of Training . International Journal of Intercultural Relations , 9 : 205 – 233 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hammer, M.R., and Martin, J.N. (1990), ‘The Effect of Cross-cultural Training on Information Exchange, Uncertainty Reduction and Anxiety Reduction of American Managers in a Japanese/American Joint Venture,’ paper presented to the International Culture Division of the Speech Communication Association Annual Convention, Chicago
   Google Scholar
• Harris , H. and Holden , L. 2001 . Between Autonomy and Control: Expatriate Managers and Strategic IHRM in SMEs . Thunderbird International Business Review , 43 ( 1 ) : 77 – 100 .
   Google Scholar
• Hechanova , R. , Beehr , T.A. and Christiansen , N.D. 2003 . Antecedents and Consequences of Employees' Adjustment to Overseas Adjustment: A Meta-analytic Review . Applied Psychology: An International Review , 52 ( 2 ) : 213 – 236 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joint Military Attaché School . 2004 . Attaché Support Staff Curriculum , USA : DoD .
   Google Scholar
• Juffer , K.A. 1986 . “ The First Step in Cross-cultural Orientation: Defining the Problem ” . In Cross-cultural Orientation: New Conceptualizations and Applications , Edited by: Paige , R.M. Lanham, MD : University Press of America .
   Google Scholar
• Jun , S. , Lee , S. and Gentry , J.W. 1997 . The Effects of Acculturation on Commitment to the Parent Company and the Foreign Operation . International Business Review , 6 ( 5 ) : 519 – 535 .
   Google Scholar
• Kahn , R. 1978 . Job Burnout: Prevention and Remedies . Public Welfare , 36 : 61 – 63 .
   Google Scholar
• Karasek , R.A. 1979 . Job Demands, Job Decision Latitude and Mental Strain: Implications for Job Redesign . Administrative Science Quarterly , 24 : 285 – 308 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kealy , D.J. and Protheroe , D.R. 1996 . The Effectiveness of Cross-cultural Training for Expatriates: An Assessment of the Literature on the Issue . International Journal of Intercultural Relations , 20 : 141 – 165 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kornhauser , A. 1965 . Mental Health of the Industrial Worker: A Detroit Study , New York : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Kozlowski , S.W.J. , Gully , S.M. , Nason , E.R. and Smith , E.M. 1999 . “ Team Compilation: Development, Performance, and Effectiveness across Levels and Time ” . In The Changing Nature of Performance: Implications for Staffing, Motivation and Development , Edited by: Ilgen , D.R. and Pulakos , E.D. 240 – 292 . San Francisco, CA : Jossey-Bass .
   Google Scholar
• Lenox , R.A. and Subich , L.M. 1994 . The Relationship between Self-efficacy Beliefs and Inventoried Vocational Interest . The Career Development Quarterly , 42 : 302 – 338 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Locke , E.A. , Frederick , E. , Lee , C. and Bobko , P. 1984 . Effect of Self-efficacy, Goals, and Task Strategies on Task Performance . Journal of Applied Psychology , 69 : 241 – 251 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luthans , F. 2002 . Positive Organizational Behavior: Developing and Managing Organizational Strengths . Academy of Management Executive , 16 ( 1 ) : 57 – 72 .
   Google Scholar
• Maslach , C. and Jackson , S.E. 1984 . “ Burnout in Organizational Settings ” . In Applied Social Psychology Annual: Applications in Organizational Settings , Edited by: Oskamp , S. Vol. 5 , 133 – 153 . Beverly Hills, CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• McEvoy , G.M. and Parker , B. 1995 . “ Expatriate Adjustment: Causes and Consequences ” . In Expatriate Management: New Ideas for International Business , Edited by: Selmer , J. 97 – 114 . Westport, CT : Quorum Books .
   Google Scholar
• Menard , S. 1991 . Longitudinal Research , Newbury Park, CA : Sage Publications .
   Google Scholar
• Morley , M.J. , Burke , C. , Inwood , S. and O'Reagan , T. 1997 . The Irish in Moscow – A Question of Adjustment . Human Resource Management Journal , 7 ( 3 ) : 53 – 67 .
   Google Scholar
• Morley , M.J. and Flynn , M. 2003 . The Relationship Between Work-role Characteristics and Intercultural Transitional Adjustment Domain Patterns Among a Sample of US and Canadian Expatriates on Assignment in Ireland . Cross Cultural Management , 10 ( 3 ) : 42 – 57 .
   Google Scholar
• Morris , M.A. and Robie , C. 2001 . A Meta-analysis of the Effects of Cross-cultural Training on Expatriate Performance and Adjustment . International Journal of Training and Development , 5 ( 2 ) : 112 – 125 .
   Google Scholar
• Naumann , E. 1993 . Organizational Predictors of Expatriate Job Satisfaction . Journal of International Business Studies , 24 ( 1 ) : 61 – 80 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicholson , N. 1984 . A Theory of Work Role Transitions . Administrative Science Quarterly , 29 ( 2 ) : 172 – 191 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicholson , N. and Imaizumi , A. 1993 . The Adjustment of Japanese Expatriates to Living and Working in Britain . British Journal of Management , 4 : 119 – 134 .
   Google Scholar
• Oberg , K. 1960 . Culture Shock: Adjustment to New Cultural Environments . Practical Anthropologist , 7 : 177 – 182 .
   Google Scholar
• Oddou , G. 1991 . Managing the Expatriates: What the Successful Firms Do . Human Resource Planning , 14 ( 4 )
   Google Scholar
• Parker , R. and Bradley , L. 2000 . Organisational Culture in the Public Sector: Evidence from Six Organisations . International Journal of Public Sector Management , 13 : 125 – 141 .
   Google Scholar
• Phillips , J.M. and Gully , S.M. 1997 . Role of Goal Orientation, Ability, Need for Achievement, and Locus of Control in the Self-efficacy and Goal-setting Process . Journal of Applied Psychology , 82 : 792 – 802 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pines , A. and Maslach , C. 1978 . Characteristics of Staff Burnout in Mental Health Settings . Hospital and Community Psychiatry , 29 : 233 – 237 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Podsakoff , P.M. and Organ , D.W. 1986 . Self-reports in Organizational Research: Problems and Prospects . Journal of Management , 12 : 531 – 544 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rizzo , J.R. , House , R.J. and Lirtzman , S.I. 1970 . Role Conflict and Ambiguity in Complex Organizations . Administrative Science Quarterly , 15 ( 2 ) : 150 – 163 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Searle , W. and Ward , C. 1990 . The Prediction of Psychological and Socio-cultural Adjustment During Cross-cultural Transitions . International Journal of Intercultural Relations , 14 : 449 – 464 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Selmer , J. 2001 . Adjustment of Western European vs. North American Expatriate Managers in China . Personnel Review , 30 ( 1 ) : 6 – 20 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Selmer , J. 2002 . Practice Makes Perfect? International Experience and Expatriate Adjustment . Management International Review , 42 ( 1 ) : 71 – 87 .
   Google Scholar
• Selmer , J. 2004 . Psychological Barriers to Adjustment of Western Business Expatriates in China: Newcomers vs. Long Stayers . International Journal of Human Resource Management , 15 ( 4/5 ) : 794 – 813 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Selmer , J. 2005 . Cross-cultural Training and Expatriate Adjustment in China: Western Joint Venture Managers . Personnel Review , 34 ( 1 ) : 68 – 84 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Selmer , J. 2006 . Language Ability and Adjustment: Western Expatriates in China . Thunderbird International Business Review , 48 ( 3 ) : 347 – 368 .
   Google Scholar
• Shaffer , M.A. , Harrison , D.A. and Gilley , K.M. 1999 . Dimensions, Determinants, and Differences in the Expatriate Adjustment Process . Journal of International Business Studies , 30 ( 3 ) : 557 – 581 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaffer , M.A. , Harrison , D.A. , Gregersen , H. , Black , J.S. and Ferzandi , L.A. 2006 . You Can Take It with You: Individual Differences and Expatriate Effectiveness . Journal of Applied Psychology , 91 ( 1 ) : 109 – 125 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Statt , D. 1994 . Psychology and the World of Work , Basingstoke : Macmillan .
   Google Scholar
• Stening , B.W. 1994 . Expatriate Management: Lessons from the British in India . International Journal of Human Resource Management , 5 ( 2 ) : 385 – 404 .
   Google Scholar
• Swagler , M.A. and Jome , L.M. 2005 . The Effects of Personality and Acculturation on the Adjustment of North American Sojourners in Taiwan . Journal of Counseling Psychology , 52 ( 4 ) : 527 – 536 .
   Google Scholar
• Torbiörn , I. 1982 . Living Abroad: Personal Adjustment and Personnel Policy in the Overseas Setting , Chichester : John Wiley & Sons .
   Google Scholar
• Tung , R. 1982 . Selection and Training Procedures of US, European and Japanese Multinationals . California Management Review , 25 ( 1 ) : 57 – 71 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang , X. and Kanungo , R.N. 2004 . Nationality, Social Network and Psychological Well-being: Expatriates in China . International Journal of Human Resource Management , 15 ( 4/5 ) : 775 – 793 .
   Google Scholar
• Ward , C. and Kennedy , A. 1992 . Locus of Control, Mood Disturbance and Social Difficulty During Cross-cultural Transitions . International Journal of Intercultural Relations , 16 : 175 – 194 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ward , C. and Kennedy , A. 1996 . “ Crossing Cultures: The Relationship Between Psychological and Socio–Cultural Dimensions of Cross-cultural Adjustment ” . In Asian Contributions to Cross–Cultural Psychology , Edited by: Pandey , J. , Sinha , D. and Bhawuk , D.P.S. 289 – 306 . New Delhi : Sage Publications .
   Google Scholar
• Ward , C. and Searle , W. 1991 . The Impact of Value Discrepancies and Cultural Identity on Psychological and Socio-cultural Adjustment of Sojourners . International Journal of Intercultural Relations , 15 : 209 – 225 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waxin , M.-F. and Panaccio , A. 2005 . Cross-cultural Training to Facilitate Expatriate Adjustment: It Works! . Personnel Review , 34 ( 1 ) : 51 – 67 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• West , M.A. , Nicholson , M. and Rees , A. 1987 . Transitions into Newly Created Jobs . Journal of Occupational Psychology , 60 ( 2 ) : 97 – 113 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wood , R. and Bandura , A. 1989a . Impact of Conceptions of Ability on Self-regulatory Mechanisms and Complex Decision Making . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 56 : 407 – 415 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wood , R. and Bandura , A. 1989b . Social Cognitive Theory of Organizational Management . Academy of Management Review , 14 : 361 – 384 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar