Perceiving an ambiguous situation as sexual harassment: the influence of observer and harasser gender

References

• Aguilar, S. J., & Baek, C. (2020). Sexual harassment in academe is underreported, especially by students in the life and physical sciences. PloS One, 15(3), e0230312.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Avendaño, A. (2018). Sexual harassment in the workplace: Where were the unions? Labor Studies Journal, 43(4), 245–262.
   Google Scholar
• Bem, S. L. (1981). Gender schema theory: A cognitive account of sex typing. Psychological Review, 88(4), 354–364.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bendixen, M., & Kennair, L. E. O. (2017). Advances in the understanding of same-sex and opposite-sex sexual harassment. Evolution and Human Behavior, 38(5), 583–591.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berthet, V., & Kantola, J. (2020). Gender, violence, and political institutions: Struggles over sexual harassment in the European Parliament. Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society. doi:10.1093/sp/jxaa015
   Google Scholar
• Brown, C. S., & Stone, E. A. (2016). Gender stereotypes and discrimination: How sexism impacts development. In S. S. Horn, M. D. Ruck, & L. S. Liben (Eds.), Advances in child development and behavior: Vol. 50. Equity and justice in developmental science: Theoretical and methodological issues (pp. 105–133). Cambridge, MA: Elsevier. doi:10.1016/bs.acdb.2015.11.001
   Google Scholar
• Carstensen, G. (2016). Sexual harassment reconsidered: The forgotten grey zone. NORA-Nordic Journal of Feminist and Gender Research, 24(4), 267–280. https://doi.org/10.1080/08038740.2017.1292314
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Central Israeli Bureau of Statistics (2018). Table 1.3: Persons aged 20 and over who were victims of crime during the 12 months preceding the survey, by type of crime, age, and sex. Personal Safety Survey 2018, 101. Retrieved March 10, 2019, from https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/publications/doclib/2019/1767_bitachon_ishi_2018/t01_03.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Child Online Protection Bureau. (2019). Amendment 10 to the prevention of sexual harassment law (the video law). Retrieved June 10, 2020, from https://www.gov.il/en/departments/legalInfo/10_amendment_to_prevention_of_sexual_harassment_law
   Google Scholar
• Cleveland, J. N., & Kerst, M. E. (1993). Sexual harassment and perceptions of power: An under-articulated relationship. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 42(1), 49–67.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dahl, J., Vescio, T., & Weaver, K. (2015). How threats to masculinity sequentially cause public discomfort, anger, and ideological dominance over women. Social Psychology, 46(4), 242–254.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis, T., & Wilson, J. M. (2016). Gender schema theory. Gender schema theory, 1–3. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118663219.wbegss655
   Google Scholar
• Diehl, C., Rees, J., & Bohner, G. (2016). Predicting sexual harassment from hostile sexism and short-term mating orientation: Relative strength of predictors depends on situational priming of power versus sex. Violence Against Women, 24(2), 123–143.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diehl, C., Rees, J., & Bohner, G. (2018). Predicting sexual harassment from hostile sexism and short-term mating orientation: Relative strength of predictors depends on situational priming of power versus sex. Violence Against Women, 24(2), 123–143.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellemers, N. (2018). Gender stereotypes. Annual Review of Psychology, 69(1), 275–298.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Espelage, D. L., Hong, J. S., & Valido, A. (2018). Associations among family violence, bullying, sexual harassment, and teen dating violence. In D. A. Wolfe & J. R. Temple (Eds.), Adolescent dating violence: Theory, research, and prevention (pp. 85–102). Cambridge, MA: Elsevier Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811797-2.00004-9
   Google Scholar
• Galdi, S., Maass, A., & Cadinu, M. (2014). Objectifying media: Their effect on gender role norms and sexual harassment of women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 38(3), 398–413.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glick, P., Fiske, S. T., Mladinic, A., Saiz, J. L., Abrams, D., Masser, B., & López, W. L. (2000). Beyond prejudice as simple antipathy: Hostile and benevolent sexism across cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(5), 763–775.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glick, P., Gangl, C., Gibb, S., Klumpner, S., & Weinberg, E. (2007). Defensive reactions to masculinity threat: More negative affect toward effeminate (but not masculine) gay men. Sex Roles, 57(1–2), 55–59.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goh, J. X., Bandt-Law, B., Cheek, N. N., Sinclair, S., & Kaiser, C. R. (2021). Narrow prototypes and neglected victims: Understanding perceptions of sexual harassment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. doi:10.1037/pspi0000260
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Griffith, J. (2019). The sexual harassment–suicide connection in the US military: Contextual effects of hostile work environment and trusted unit leaders. Suicide and Life‐Threatening Behavior, 49(1), 41–53.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gutek, B. A. (2015). Sexual harassment. Wiley Encyclopedia of Management, 1–1.
   Google Scholar
• Gurung, A., Priyadarshini, S., & Margaret, B. E. (2016). Perception of sexual harassment among the undergraduate students. Manipal Journal of Nursing and Heath Sciences, 2(1), 46–51.
   Google Scholar
• Haines, E. L., Deaux, K., & Lofaro, N. (2016). The times they are a-changing … or are they not? A comparison of gender stereotypes, 1983–2014. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40(3), 353–363.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hogg, M. A. (2016). Social identity theory. In S. McKeown, R. Haji, & N. Ferguson (Eds.), Understanding peace and conflict through social identity theory: Contemporary global perspectives (pp. 3–17). Manhattan, NY: Springer International.
   Google Scholar
• Holland, K. J., & Cortina, L. M. (2016). Sexual harassment: Undermining the wellbeing of working women. In M. L. Connerley & J. Wu (Eds.), Handbook on well-being of working women (pp. 83–101). Manhattan, NY: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Holland, K. J., Rabelo, V. C., Gustafson, A. M., Seabrook, R. C., & Cortina, L. M. (2016). Sexual harassment against men: Examining the roles of feminist activism, sexuality, and organizational context. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 17(1), 17–29.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• IBM, IBM. (2016). IBM SPSS statistics for windows (Version 24.0).
   Google Scholar
• Johnson, P. A., Widnall, S. E., & Benya, F. F. (Eds.). (2018). Sexual harassment of women: Climate, culture, and consequences in academic sciences, engineering, and medicine. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/24994
   Google Scholar
• Joseph, J. (2015). Sexual harassment in tertiary institutions: A comparative perspective. Temida, 18(2), 125–144.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kamir, O. (2009). Harassed: Living with Israel’s sexual harassment law. Carmel & Hakibbutz Hameuchad (Hebrew).
   Google Scholar
• Kamir, O. (2019). A dignitarian feminist jurisprudence with applications to rape, sexual harassment and honor codes. In R. West & C. G. Bowman (Eds.), Research handbook on feminist jurisprudence (pp. 303–321). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.
   Google Scholar
• Kara, D., & Toygar, S. A. (2018). Gender differences in attitudes toward sexual harassment of health care employees: A Turkish case study. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34(17), 3574–3591.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karami, A., Swan, S. C., White, C. N., & Ford, K. (2019). Hidden in plain sight for too long: Using text mining techniques to shine a light on workplace sexism and sexual harassment. Psychology of Violence. doi:10.1037/vio0000239
   Google Scholar
• Knapp, D. E., DuBois, C. L., Hogue, M., Astakhova, M. N., & Faley, R. H. (2019). Russian workers’ experiences with and perceptions of sexual harassment severity. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 30(13), 2049–2076.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kudryavtsev, A. (2017). The availability heuristic and reversals following large stock price changes. Journal of Behavioral Finance, 19(2), 159–176.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Law for the Prevention of Employment of Sex Offenders in Certain Institutions. (2011). Israel: Prevention of employment of sex offenders in specific institutions. Retrieved June 10, 2020, from the Library of Congress, https://www.loc.gov/item/global-legal-monitor/2011-06-20/israel-prevention-of-employment-of-sex-offenders-in-specific-institutions/)
   Google Scholar
• Kunst, J. R., Bailey, A., Prendergast, C., & Gundersen, A. (2019). Sexism, rape myths and feminist identification explain gender differences in attitudes toward the# metoo social media campaign in two countries. Media Psychology, 25(5), 818–843.
   Google Scholar
• McDonald, P. (2012). Workplace sexual harassment 30 years on: A review of the literature. International Journal of Management Reviews, 14(1), 1–17.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McDonald, P., Charlesworth, S., & Cerise, S. (2011, July). Below the “tip of the iceberg”: Extra-legal responses to workplace sexual harassment. In Women’s studies international forum (Vol. 34, pp. 278–289). Pergamon.
   Google Scholar
• McLaughlin, H., Uggen, C., & Blackstone, A. (2012). Sexual harassment, workplace authority, and the paradox of power. American Sociological Review, 77(4), 625–647.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mellgren, C., Andersson, M., & Ivert, A. K. (2018). “It happens all the time”: Women’s experiences and normalization of sexual harassment in public space. Women & Criminal Justice, 28(4), 262–281.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mikorski, R., & Szymanski, D. M. (2017). Masculine norms, peer group, pornography, Facebook, and men’s sexual objectification of women. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 18(4), 257–267.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olivarius, A. (2017). Sexual harassment and assault in the academy. Medieval Feminist Forum: A Journal of Gender and Sexuality, 53(1), 11–36.
   Google Scholar
• Pina, A., & Gannon, T. A. (2012). An overview of the literature on antecedents, perceptions and behavioral consequences of sexual harassment. Journal of Sexual Aggression, 18(2), 209–232.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prevention of Sexual Harassment Law (1998). https://knesset.gov.il/review/data/eng/law/kns14_harassment_eng.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Quick, J. C., & McFadyen, M. (2017). Sexual harassment: Have we made any progress? Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 22(3), 286–298.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quintero Johnson, J. M., & Miller, B. (2016). When women “snap”: The use of mental illness to contextualize women’s acts of violence in contemporary popular media. Women’s Studies in Communication, 39(2), 211–227.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rothgerber, H., Kaufling, K., Incorvati, C., Andrew, C. B., & Farmer, A. (2020). Is a reasonable woman different from a reasonable person? Gender differences in perceived sexual harassment. Sex Roles, 84(3–4), 208–220.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rozmann, N., & Levy, I. (2019). Attribution of blame toward offenders: Victim and offender ethnicity, and observer ethnic and religious background. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 0886260519885914. doi:10.1177/0886260519885914
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell, B. L., & Trigg, K. Y. (2004). Tolerance of sexual harassment: An examination of gender differences, ambivalent sexism, social dominance, and gender roles. Sex Roles, 50(7), 565–573.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmader, T., & Block, K. (2015). Engendering identity: Toward a clearer conceptualization of gender as a social identity. Sex Roles, 73(11), 474–480.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaver, K. G. (1970). Defensive attribution: Effects of severity and relevance on the responsibility as- signed for an accident. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 14(2), 101–113.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shechory-Bitton, M., & Zvi, L. (2020). Is it harassment? Perceptions of sexual harassment among lawyers and undergraduate students. Frontiers in psychology, 11, 1793. Retrieved August 12, 2021, from https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01793
   Google Scholar
• Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behaviour. In S. Worchel & W. G. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 7–24). Chicago, IL: Nelson-Hall.
   Google Scholar
• Terrance, C., Logan, A., & Peters, D. (2004). Perceptions of peer sexual harassment among high school students. Sex Roles, 51(7/8), 479–490.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Traylor, L., & Richie, B. (2012). Female offenders and women in prison. In J. Petersilia & K. Reitz (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of sentencing and corrections (pp. 561–583). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199730148.013.0023
   Google Scholar
• Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1973). Availability: A heuristic for judging frequency and probability. Cognitive Psychology, 5(2), 207–232.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vandello, J. A., & Bosson, J. K. (2013). Hard won and easily lost: A review and synthesis of theory and research on precarious manhood. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 14(2), 101–113.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woodzicka, J. A., & LaFrance, M. (2001). Real versus imagined gender harassment. Journal of Social Issues, 57(1), 15–30.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiener, R. L., & Vardsveen, T. C. (2018). The objective prong in sexual harassment: What is the standard? Law and Human Behavior, 42(6), 545–557.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar