The secret lives of unrecognised states: Internal dynamics, external relations, and counter-recognition strategies

References

• Abkhazworld.com. ‘A polling-station has been opened in Turkey for the election of the President of Abkhazia’, 14 August 2014. http://abkhazworld.com/aw/current-affairs/1248-a-polling-station-has-been-opened-in-turkey-for-the-election-of-the-president-of-abkhazia#sthash.qWQ08jkp.dpuf (accessed 20 May 2015).
   Google Scholar
• Airumyan, Naira. ‘V Nagornom Karabakh Sostoyalas’ Kollektivnaya Svad’ba 675 Par.’ Caucasian Knot. http://www.kavkaz-uzel.ru/articles/142961/ (accessed 22 May 2015).
   Google Scholar
• Baev, Pavel. Russia’s Policies in Secessionist Conflicts in Europe in the 1990s. Norwegian Atlantic Committee, 1998.
   Google Scholar
• Barbăroșie, A. and O. Nantoi. Aspects of the Transnistrian Conflict. Chişinău: Institutul de Politici Publice, 2004.
   Google Scholar
• Bargandzhia, Said. ‘V Abkhazii Prozhivaet 4 Tysiachi Repatriantov - Smyr’ [Four thousand repatriates live in Abkhazia - Smyr]. Sputnik Abkhazia, 26 March 2015. http://sputnik-abkhazia.ru/Abkhazia/20150326/1014241715.html.
   Google Scholar
• Barry, Ellen. “Vanuatu Recognizes Abkhazia. Or Maybe Not.” The New York Times 3 (June 2011).
   Google Scholar
• Berg, Eiki, and Raul Toomla. “Forms of Normalisation in the Quest for De Facto Statehood.” The International Spectator 44, no. 4 (2009): 27–45.
   Google Scholar
• Blakkisrud, H., and P. Kolstø. “Dynamics of De Facto Statehood: The South Caucasian De Facto States Between Secession and Sovereignty.” Southeast European and Black Sea Studies 12, no. 2 (2012): 281–298.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Broers, Laurence. “Recognising Politics in Unrecognised States: 20 Years of Enquiry into the De Facto States of the South Caucasus.” Caucasus Survey 1, no. 1 (2013): 59–74.
   Google Scholar
• Broers, Laurence, and Gerard Toal. “Cartographic Exhibitionism? Visualizing the Territory of Armenia and Karabakh.” Problems of Post-Communism 60, no. 3 (2013): 16–35.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byman, Daniel, and Charles King. “The Mystery of Phantom States.” The Washington Quarterly 35, no. 3 (2012): 43–57.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caspersen, N. “From Kosovo to Karabakh: International Responses to De Facto States.” Südosteuropa 56, no. 1 (2008): 58–83.
   Google Scholar
• Caspersen, N. Unrecognised States: The Struggle for Sovereignty in the Modern International System. London: John Wiley & Sons, 2012.
   Google Scholar
• Civil.ge. ‘თბილისი აფხაზეთში ‘ბენეტონის’ მაღაზიის გახსნის გეგმებს აპროტესტებს სივილ ჯორჯია, თბილისი .25 მაისი, 2009. [‘Tbilisi protesting the plans of opening Benetton shop in Abkhazia’, 25 May]. (accessed 10 May 2015). http://www.civil.ge/geo/article.php?id=21206
   Google Scholar
• Civil.ge. ‘Sokhumi Says Recognized by Vanuatu’, 1 June 2011. http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=23568.
   Google Scholar
• Civil.ge. ‘Georgia Summons Armenian Diplomat over Meeting of Armenian, S.Ossetian Parliament Speakers’, 4 May 2015. http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=28242 (accessed 20 May 2015).
   Google Scholar
• Coene, Frederik. The Caucasus: An Introduction. London: Routledge, 2009.
   Google Scholar
• Comai, Giorgio. ‘Post-Soviet de Facto States Online’. In Digital Eastern Europe, edited by William Schreiber and Marcin Kosienkowski, Wrocław: KEW, 2015: 92–97.
   Google Scholar
• Comai, Giorgio. ‘Sovereignty Conflicts and Minority Protection: The Case of Abkhazia’. In Self-Determination and Sovereignty in Europe, edited by Stafano Bianchini. Ravenna: Angelo Longo, 2013: 163–182.
   Google Scholar
• Comai, Giorgio, and Bernardo Venturi. “Language and Education Laws in Multi-Ethnic De Facto States: The Cases of Abkhazia and Transnistria.” Nationalities Papers 43, no. 6 (November 2015): 886–905.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cominf.org. ‘Acting Foreign Minister of South Ossetia Discussed Prospects of Cooperation with the Authorities of a Number of Italian Cities’. Res Information Agency, 31 March 2014. http://cominf.org/en/node/1166501459.
   Google Scholar
• Companjen, Francoise and Abel Polese. ‘Subtle Line between Self-defence and War: South Ossetia 2008’. In Conflict and Peace in Eurasia, edited by Aurobinda Mahapatra Debidatta, 88–102. London: Routledge, 2012.
   Google Scholar
• Democracy and Freedom Watch. ‘McDonald’s to open restaurant in Abkhazia?’ January 2014. http://dfwatch.net/mcdonalds-to-open-restaurant-in-abkhazia-78881-25589 (accessed 10 May 2015).
   Google Scholar
• De Waal, Thomas. ‘Remaking the Nagorno-Karabakh Peace Process’. Survival 52, no. 4 (1 September 2010): 159–176.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Waal, Thomas. ‘The Karabakh Trap: Dangers and Dilemmas of the Nagorny Karabakh Conflict.’ Conciliation Resources, December 2008. http://www.c-r.org/resources/karabakh-trap-dangers-and-dilemmas-nagorny-karabakh-conflict.
   Google Scholar
• EurasiaNet. ‘Syrian Refugees Resettling in Occupied Azerbaijani Territory’. EurasiaNet, 28 January 2013. http://www.eurasianet.org/node/66461.
   Google Scholar
• Geldenhuys, Deon. Deviant Conduct in World Politics. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.
   Google Scholar
• Górecki, Wojciech. Abchazja. Wołowiec: Wydawnictwo Czarne, 2013.
   Google Scholar
• International Crisis Group. ‘Abkhazia: Deepening Dependence’. Crisis Group Europe Report. International Crisis Group, 26 February 2010. http://www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm?id=6550&CFID=39228437&CFTOKEN=10642412.
   Google Scholar
• International Crisis Group. ‘Abkhazia: The Long Road to Reconciliation’. Crisis Group Europe Report No. 224, 10 April 2013.
   Google Scholar
• International Crisis Group. “South Ossetia: The Burden of Recognition.” Europe Report. International Crisis Group 7 (June 2010).
   Google Scholar
• Isachenko, Daria. The Making of Informal States: Statebuilding in Northern Cyprus and Transdniestria. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.
   Google Scholar
• Jackson, R. H. Quasi-States: Sovereignty, International Relations and the Third World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
   Google Scholar
• Lak’oba, Stanislav. ‘History: 18th century–1917’. In The Abkhazians: A Handbook, edited by George Hewitt, 67–88. London: Routledge, 1998.
   Google Scholar
• Ker-Lindsay, James. ‘Engagement without Recognition: The Limits of Diplomatic Interaction with Contested States’. International Affairs 91, no. 2 (1 March 2015): 267–285.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ker-Lindsay, James. The Foreign Policy of Counter Secession: Preventing the Recognition of Contested States. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
   Google Scholar
• Kapba, Arifa. ‘Syrian Repatriates – Adaptation and Integration’. International Alert, 30 January 2014. http://www.international-alert.org/blog/syrian-repatriates-adaptation-and-integration-en.
   Google Scholar
• King, Charles. “The Benefits of Ethnic War: Understanding Eurasia’s Unrecognised States.” World Politics 53, no. 4 (2001): 524–552.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kingston, Paul and Ian Spears. States Within States: Incipient Political Entities in the Post-Cold War Era. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. 2004.
   Google Scholar
• Kolossov, Vladimir, and John O’Loughlin. “Pseudo-States as Harbingers of A New Geopolitics: The Example of the Trans-Dniester Moldovan Republic (TMR).” Geopolitics 3, no. 1 (1998): 151–176.
   Google Scholar
• Kolstø, Pål. “The Sustainability and Future of Unrecognized Quasi-States.” Journal of Peace Research 43, no. 6 (2006): 723–740.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kolstø, Pål, and Davor Paukovic. “The Short and Brutish Life of Republika Srpska Krajina: Failure of a De Facto State.” Ethnopolitics 13, no. 4 (2014): 309–327.
   Google Scholar
• Kosienkowski, Marcin. Continuity and Change in Transnistria’s Foreign Policy after the 2011 Presidential Elections. Lublin: The Catholic University of Lublin Publishing House, 2012.
   Google Scholar
• Kosienkowski, Marcin. ‘Is Internationally Recognised Independence the Goal of Quasi-States? The Case of Transnistria.’ In Moldova: In Search of Its Own Place in Europe, edited by N Cwicinskiej and P. Oleksego, 55–65. Bydgoszcz: Epigram, 2013. http://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2132161.
   Google Scholar
• Lynch, Dov. Engaging Eurasia’s Separatist States: Unresolved Conflicts and De Facto States. Washington, DC: US Institute of Peace Press, 2004.
   Google Scholar
• Lynch, Dov. “De Facto “States” Around the Black Sea: The Importance of Fear.” Southeast European and Black Sea Studies 7, no. 3 (2007): 483–496.
   Google Scholar
• Médecins Sans Frontières. ‘Abkhazia, Old and Frail in the Shadow of the Embargo’, December 2002. http://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/publications/reports/2003/abkhgb.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Ministry of Foreign Affairs of PMR (Transnistria). ‘The Foreign Policy Concept of the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic’, 2015. http://mfa-pmr.org/en/yGL (accessed 20 May 2015).
   Google Scholar
• Ministry of Foreign Affairs of PMR (Transnistria). ‘Statement by the MFA of the PMR in connection with the incident that occurred on 20 April, 2015 at the airport in Kishinev involving an official of the Foreign Ministry of Pridnestrovie’, 2015. http://mfa-pmr.org/en/phC (accessed 20 May 2015).
   Google Scholar
• Ó Beacháin, Donnacha. ‘Abkhaz’. In Ethnic Groups in Europe, edited by Jeffrey Cole, 2–5. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2011.
   Google Scholar
• Ó Beacháin, Donnacha. ‘The Dynamics of Electoral Politics in Abkhazia’. Communist and Post Communist Studies 27, nos. 1–2 (2012): 165–174.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ó Beacháin, Donnacha. ‘Elections Without Recognition: Presidential and Parliamentary Contests in Abkhazia and Nagorno-Karabakh’. Caucasus Survey 3, no. 3 (October 2015): 239–257.
   Google Scholar
• Ó Beacháin, Donnacha. ‘Ireland’s Chairmanship of the OSCE—A Mid-Term Review’, Irish Studies in International Affairs 23 (2012): 89–109.
   Google Scholar
• Ó Beacháin, Donnacha. ‘Ireland’s Foreign Relations in 2012’. Irish Studies in International Affairs 25 (2013): 347–376.
   Google Scholar
• Ó Beacháin, Donnacha. ‘The Role of the EU and the OSCE in Promoting Security and Cooperation in the South Caucasus and Moldova’. In Security and Cross-Border Cooperation in the EU, Black Sea Region and the Southern Caucasus, edited by Ayca Ergun and Hamlet Isaxanli, 42–57. NATO Science for Peace and Security Series. Amsterdam: IOS Press, 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Ó Beacháin, Donnacha. ‘The Role of External Actors in Post-Soviet Frozen Conflicts’. Contemporary Central Asia 17, no. 1 (August 2013): 30–48.
   Google Scholar
• Ó Beacháin, Donnacha. ‘Roses and Tulips: Dynamics of Regime Change in Georgia and Kyrgyzstan’. Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics 25, nos. 2–3 (2009): 199–226.
   Google Scholar
• Ó Beacháin, Donnacha. ‘What Happens When an Unrecognised Country Experiences a Revolution?’ The Global Observatory, 13 June 2014. http://theglobalobservatory.org/2014/06/what-happens-when-unrecognised-country-experiences-revolution/.
   Google Scholar
• Ó Beacháin, Donnacha and Frederik Coene. ‘Go West: Georgia’s European Identity and Its Role in Domestic Politics and Foreign Policy Objectives’. Nationalities Papers 42, no. 6 (November 2014): 923–941.
   Google Scholar
• Ó Beacháin, Donnacha. ‘Nation-building and elections in an unrecognised state: the case of Abkhazia’, in Rico Isaacs and Abel Polese (eds.) Nation-Building and Identity in the post-Soviet Space: New tools and approaches. London: Routledge, 2016: 206-225.
   Google Scholar
• Ó Beacháin, Donnacha and Rob Kevlihan. ‘Threading a Needle – Kazakhstan Between Civic and Ethno Nationalist State-Building’. Nations and Nationalism 19, no. 2 (2013): 337–356.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ó Beacháin, Donnacha and Abel Polese (eds). The Colour Revolutions in the Former Soviet Republics: Successes and Failures. London: Routledge, 2010.
   Google Scholar
• Ó Beacháin-Stefanczak, Karolina and Eileen Connolly. ‘Gender and Political Representation in the De Facto States of the Caucasus: Women and Parliamentary Elections in Abkhazia’. Caucasus Survey 3, no. 3 (October 2015): 258–268.
   Google Scholar
• O’Loughlin, John, Gearóid Ó Tuathail(Gerard Toal) and Rebecca Chamberlain-Creanga. “Divided Space, Divided Attitudes? Comparing the Republics of Moldova and Pridnestrovie (Transnistria) Using Simultaneous Surveys.” Eurasian Geography and Economics 54 (2013): 227–258.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O Strakhovykh Vznosakh I Platezhakh vo Vnebyudzhetnye Sotsial’nye Fondy Respubliki Abkhazia [Insurance contributions and payments to the out-of-budget Social Funds of the Republic of Abkhazia], 2012. http://www.gazeta-ra.info/index-1.php?ELEMENT_ID=5570.
   Google Scholar
• Owtram, Francis. “The Foreign Policies of Unrecognised States.” In Unrecognised States in the International System, edited by Nina Caspersen and Gareth RV Stansfield, 138–53. Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 2011.
   Google Scholar
• Pegg, Scott De. Facto States in the International System. Institute of International Relations: University of British Columbia, 1998.
   Google Scholar
• Pegg, Scott and Pål Kolstø. ‘Somaliland: Dynamics of Internal Legitimacy and (Lack of) External Sovereignty’. Geoforum (forthcoming).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Popescu, Nicu. Europe's Unrecognised Neighbours: The EU in Abkhazia and South Ossetia. No. 260. CEPS, March 2007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Popescu, Nicu. EU Foreign Policy and Post-Soviet Conflicts: Stealth Intervention. New York, NY: Routledge. 2010
   Google Scholar
• Protsyk, Oleh. “Representation and democracy in Eurasia’s unrecognized states: The case of Transnistria.” Post-Soviet Affairs 25.3 (2009): 257–281.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Radio Free Europe. “‘To Recognize or Not To Recognize Abkhazia?” That Is Vanuatu’s Question’ 26 (August 2012).
   Google Scholar
• Shtanski, N. V., D. N. Palamarchuk, and D. N. Kambur. ‘Blokada Pridnestrov’ya: vyzhivanie vmesta razvitiya’ [Transnistria under blockade: survival instead of development]. Tiraspol: MFA of Transnistria’s. MFA, 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Toal, Gerard, and John O’Loughlin. “Inside South Ossetia: A Survey of Attitudes in a de Facto State.” Post-Soviet Affairs 29, no. 2 (2013): 136–172.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toal, Gerard, and John O’Loughlin. “Land for Peace in Nagorny Karabakh? Political Geographies and Public Attitudes Inside a Contested De Facto State.” Territory, Politics, Governance 1, no. 2 (2013): 158–182.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Transnistria’s Bureau of Statistics. Statisticheskii Ezhegodnik PMR 2014 [Statistical Yearbook of Transnistria]. Tiraspol: Transnistria’s Bureau of Statistics, 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Volkhonskiy, Mikhail, V.A. Zakharov, and N.Yu. Silaev (eds). Konflikty v Abkhazii I Yuzhnoi Osetii: Dokumenty 1989–2006 Gg. Prilozhenie K ‘Kavkazskomu Sborniku,’ vyp. 1. Moscow: Russkaya panorama, 2008.
   Google Scholar
• Walls, Michael and Steven Kibble. ‘What Makes Somaliland’s Case for Recognition So Different?’, Yorkshire African Studies Network, 2011. http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1317659/1/SudanLeedsYASN100611_5june11.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Walter, Christian. Antje von Ungern-Sternberg, and Kavus Abushov. Self-Determination and Secession in International Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.
   Google Scholar