Characterization and metal availability of copper, lead, antimony and zinc contamination at four Canadian small arms firing ranges

References

• Murray , K. , Bazzi , A. , Carter , C. , Ehlert , A. , Harris , A. , Kopec , M. , Richardson , J. and Sokol , H. 1997 . Distribution and mobility of lead in soils at an outdoor shooting range . J. Soil Contam. , 6 : 79 – 93 .
   Google Scholar
• USEPA . 2001 . Best management practices for lead at outdoor shooting ranges , New York : United States Environmental Protection Agency . EPA‐902‐B01‐001
   Google Scholar
• Manninen , S. and Tanskanen , N. 1993 . Transfer of lead from shotgun pellets to humus and three plant species in a Finnish shooting range . Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. , 24 : 410 – 414 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mellor , A. and McCartney , C. 1994 . The effects of lead shot deposition on soils and crops at a clay pigeon shooting site in northern England soil . Soil Use Manage. , 10 : 124 – 129 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stansley , W. and Roscoe , D.E. 1996 . The uptake and effects of lead in small mammals and frogs at a trap and skeet range . Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. , 30 : 220 – 226 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rooney , C.P. , Mclaren , R.G. and Cresswell , R.J. 1999 . Distribution and phytoavailability of lead in a soil contaminated with lead shot . Water Air Soil Pollut. , 116 : 535 – 548 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clausen , J. and Korte , N. 2009 . The distribution of metals in soils and pore water at three U.S. military training facilities . Soil Sediment Contam. , 18 : 546 – 563 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin , Z. , Comet , B. , Qvarfort , U. and Herbert , R. 1995 . The chemical and mineralogical behavior of Pb in shooting range soils from central Sweden . Environ. Pollut. , 89 : 303 – 309 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin , Z. 1996 . Secondary mineral phases of metallic lead in soils of shooting ranges from Örebro County, Sweden . Environ. Geol. , 27 : 370 – 375 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cao , X. , Ma , L.Q. , Hardison Jr , D.W. and Harris , W.G. 2003 . Weathering of lead bullets and their environmental effects at outdoor shooting ranges . J. Environ. Qual. , 32 : 526 – 534 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hardison Jr , D.W. , Ma , L.Q. , Luongo , T. and Harris , W.G. 2004 . Lead contamination in shooting range soils from abrasion of lead bullets and subsequent weathering . Sci. Total Environ. , 328 : 175 – 183 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen , M. , Daroub , S.H. , Ma , L.Q. , Harris , W.G. and Cao , X. 2002 . Characterization of lead in soils of a rifle/pistol shooting range in central Florida, USA . Soil Sediment Contam. , 11 : 1 – 17 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cao , X. , Ma , L.Q. , Hardison , D.W. Jr and Harris , W.G. 2003 . Lead transformation and distribution in the soils of shooting ranges in Florida, USA . Sci. Total Environ. , 307 : 179 – 189 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ackermann , S. , Gieré , R. , Newville , M. and Majzlan , J. 2009 . Antimony sinks in the weathering crust of bullets from Swiss shooting ranges . Sci. Total Environ. , 407 : 1669 – 1682 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bennett , J.R. , Kaufman , C.A. , Koch , I. , Sova , J. and Reimer , K.J. 2007 . Ecological risk assessment of lead contamination at rifle and pistol ranges using techniques to account for site characteristics . Sci. Total Environ. , 374 : 91 – 101 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Darling , C.T.R. and Thomas , V.G. 2003 . The distribution of outdoor shooting ranges in Ontario and the potential for lead pollution of soil and water . Sci. Total Environ. , 313 : 235 – 243 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment . 1999 . “ Canadian soil quality guidelines for the protection of environmental and human health: Lead ” . In Canadian Environmental Quality Guidelines , Winnipeg : Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment .
   Google Scholar
• Davies , B.E. 1995 . “ Lead ” . In Heavy Metals in Soil , Edited by: Alloway , B.J. 206 – 223 . London : Blackie Academic and Professional .
   Google Scholar
• Schwartz , J. , Landrigan , P.J. , Feldman , R.G. , Silbergeld , E.K. , Baker , E.L. and Von Lindern , I.H. 1988 . Threshold effect in lead‐induced peripheral neuropathy . J. Pediatr. , 112 : 12 – 17 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• 1989 . International Agency for Research on Cancer Monograph 47 , Lyon, , France : IARC .
   Google Scholar
• Streit , B. 1991 . Lexikon Ökotoxikologie , Weilheim : Chemie Verlag .
   Google Scholar
• Goldhaber , S.B. 2003 . Trace element risk assessment: Essentiality vs. toxicity . Regul. Toxicol. Pharm. , 38 : 232 – 242 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanner , M.S. 1998 . Role of copper in Indian childhood cirrhosis . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 67 : 1074S – 1081S .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gallego , S.M. , Benavides , M.P. and Tomaro , M.L. 1996 . Effect of heavy metal ion excess on sunflower leaves: Evidence for involvement of oxidative stress . Plant Sci. , 121 : 151 – 159 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prasad , K.V.S.K , Paradha Saradhi , P. and Sharmila , P. 1999 . Concerted action of antioxidant enzymes and curtailed growth under zinc toxicity in Brassica juncea . Environ. Exp. Bot. , 42 : 1 – 10 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment . 1999 . “ Canadian soil quality guidelines for the protection of environmental and human health: Copper ” . In Canadian Environmental Quality Guidelines , Winnipeg : Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment .
   Google Scholar
• Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment . 1999 . “ Canadian soil quality guidelines for the protection of environmental and human health: Zinc ” . In Canadian Environmental Quality Guidelines , Winnipeg : Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment .
   Google Scholar
• USEPA . 1992 . Test method 1311. Toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) , United States Environmental Protection Agency . Available at http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/hazard/testmethods/sw846/pdfs/1311.pdf
   Google Scholar
• USEPA . 1994 . Test method 1312. Synthetic precipitation leaching procedure (SPLP) , United States Environmental Protection Agency . Available at http://www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/testmethods/sw846/pdfs/1312.pdf
   Google Scholar
• USEPA . 2004 . Test method 1310B. Extraction procedure (EP) toxicity test method and structural integrity test , United States Environmental Protection Agency . Available at http://www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/testmethods/sw846/pdfs/1310b.pdf
   Google Scholar
• ASTM International . 2004 . ASTM D3897‐85: Standard test method for shake extraction of solid waste with water , West Conshohoken, PA : ASTM International .
   Google Scholar
• Dungan , R.S. and Dees , N.H. 2009 . The characterization of total and leachable metals in foundry molding sands . J. Environ. Manage. , 90 : 539 – 548 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Standards Australia . 1997 . Australian Standard 4439.2‐1997: Wastes, sediments and contaminated soils, part 2: Preparation of leachates – zero headspace procedure , Sydney, , Australia : Standards Australia .
   Google Scholar
• Standards Australia . 1997 . Australian Standard 4439.3‐1997: Wastes, sediments and contaminated soils, part 3: Preparation of leachates – bottle leaching procedure , Sydney, , Australia : Standards Australia .
   Google Scholar
• Halim , C.E. , Scott , J.A. , Amal , R. , Short , S.A. , Beydoun , D. , Low , G. and Cattle , J. 2005 . Evaluating the applicability of regulatory leaching tests for assessing the hazards of Pb‐contaminated soils . J. Hazard. Mater. , 120 : 101 – 111 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• German Institute for Standardization . 1984 . DIN 38414‐4: German standard methods for the examination of water, waste water and sludge; sludge and sediments (group S); determination of leachability by water (S4) , Berlin, , Germany : German Institute for Standardization .
   Google Scholar
• Association Française de Normalisation (AFNOR) . 1988 . Déchets: Essai de lixivation X31‐210, AFNOR T95J , Paris : AFNOR .
   Google Scholar
• Netherlands Standardization Institute . 1995 . NEN 7341: Leaching characteristics of solid earthy and stony building and waste materials. Leaching tests. Determination of availability of inorganic compounds for leaching, , 1st ed. , Delft, , Netherlands : Netherlands Standardization Institute .
   Google Scholar
• Netherlands Standardization Institute . 1995 . NEN 7349: Leaching characteristics of solid earthy and stony building and waste materials. Leaching tests. Determination of the leaching of inorganic components from granular materials with the cascade test, , 1st ed. , Delft, , Netherlands : Netherlands Standardization Institute .
   Google Scholar
• Townsend , T. , Jang , Y.C. and Tolaymat , T. 2003 . A guide to the use of leaching tests in solid waste management decision making , Gainesville, FL : University of Florida . Report #0‐01(A), prepared for The Florida Center for Solid and Hazardous Waste Management
   Google Scholar
• Mercier , G. , Duchesne , J. and Carles‐Gibergues , A. 2002 . A simple and fast screening test to detect soils polluted by lead . Environ. Pollut. , 118 : 285 – 296 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Townsend , T. , Dubey , B. and Tolaymat , T. 2006 . Interpretation of synthetic precipitation leaching procedure (SPLP) results for assessing risk to groundwater from land‐applied granular waste . Environ. Eng. Sci. , 23 : 239 – 251 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bruell , R. , Nikolaidis , N.P. and Long , R.P. 1999 . Evaluation of remedial alternatives of lead from shooting range soil . Environ. Eng. Sci. , 16 : 403 – 414 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dermatas , D. , Menounou , M. , Dadachov , M. , Dutko , P. , Shen , G. , Xu , X. and Tsaneva , V. 2006 . Lead leachability in firing range soil . Environ. Eng. Sci. , 23 : 88 – 101 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cao , X. and Dermatas , D. 2008 . Evaluating the applicability of regulatory leaching tests for assessing lead leachability in contaminated shooting range soils . Environ. Monit. Assess. , 139 : 1 – 13 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bannon , D.I. , Drexler , J.W. , Fent , G.M. , Casteel , S.W. , Hunter , P.J. , Brattin , W.J. and Major , M.A. 2009 . Evaluation of small arms range soils for metal contamination and lead bioavailability . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 43 : 9071 – 9076 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laporte‐Saumure , M. , Martel , R. and Mercier , G. 2010 . Evaluation of physicochemical methods for treatment of Pb, Cu, Sb and Zn in Canadian small arm firing ranges . Water Air Soil Pollut. , doi: doi: 10.1007/s11270-010-0376-2 (In Press)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• APHA, AWWA, and WPCF . 1999 . Standards methods for the examination of water and wastewaters, , 20th ed. , Washington, DC : American Public Health Association .
   Google Scholar
• Dahlin , C.L. , Williamson , C.A. , Collins , W.K. and Dahlin , D.C. 2002 . Sequential extraction versus comprehensive characterization of heavy metal species in brownfield soils . Environ. Forensics , 3 : 191 – 201 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dermont , G. , Bergeron , M. , Mercier , G. and Richer‐Laflèche , M. 2008 . Soil washing for metal removal: A review of physical/chemical technologies and field applications . J. Hazard. Mater. , 152 : 1 – 31 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yarlagadda , P.S. , Matsumoto , M.R. , Van Benschoten , J.E. and Kathuria , A. 1995 . Characteristics of heavy metals in contaminated soils . J. Environ. Eng. , 121 : 276 – 286 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mercier , G. , Duchesne , J. and Blackburn , D. 2001 . Prediction of metal removal efficiency from contaminated soils by physical methods . J. Environ. Eng. , 127 : 348 – 358 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jensen , P.E. , Ottosen , L.M. and Pedersen , A.J. 2006 . Speciation of Pb in industrially polluted soils . Water Air Soil Pollut. , 170 : 359 – 382 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Electronic Code of Federal Regulations . 2008 . Title 40: Protection of Environment. Part 266 – Standards for the management of specific hazardous wastes and specific types of hazardous waste management facilities. Appendix VII: Health‐based limits for exclusion of waste‐derived residues Available at http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=18a9069cb7b35a929e3bcce2e0804b24&rgn=div9&view=text&node=40:26.0.1.1.1.9.27.23.7&idno=40
   Google Scholar
• Ministère du Développement Durable, de l'Environnement et des Parcs (MDDEP) . 1999 . Politique de protection des sols et de réhabilitation des terrains contaminés , Québec City : MDDEP . (In French)
   Google Scholar
• Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment . 2007 . “ Recommandations canadiennes pour la qualité des sols: Environnement et santé humaine – tableaux sommaires, mis à jour ” . In Recommandations Canadiennes pour la Qualité de l'Environnement , Winnipeg : Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment . (In French)
   Google Scholar
• Wedepohl , K.H. 1995 . The composition of the continental crust . Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta , 59 : 1217 – 1232 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laporte‐Saumure , M. , Varfalvy , V. , Martel , R. , Mercier , G. , Deschênes‐Rancourt , C. , Trépanier , L. and Brochu , S. 2010 . Suivi de la qualité de l'eau interstitielle dans la zone non‐saturée d'une butte de tir expérimentale et de la butte de tir en opération Nicosie à BFC e Valcartier (Phase V); et établissement de la signature isotopique du plomb dans les sols des buttes de tir, Confidential research report R‐1160 , Québec City : INRS‐ETE . (in French)
   Google Scholar
• Vantelon , D. , Lanzirotti , A. , Scheinost , A.C. and Kretzschmar , R. 2005 . Spatial distribution and speciation of lead around corroding bullets in a shooting range soil studied by micro‐X‐ray fluorescence and absorption spectroscopy . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 39 : 4808 – 4815 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rooney , C.P. , McLaren , R.G. and Condron , L.M. 2007 . Control of lead solubility in soil with lead shot: Effect of soil pH . Environ. Pollut. , 147 : 149 – 157 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grice , J.D. , Nickel , E.H. and Gault , R.A. 1991 . Ashburtonite, a new bicarbonate‐silicate mineral from Ashburton Downs, Western Australia: Description and structure determination . Am. Mineral. , 76 : 1701 – 1707 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yakubovich , O.V. , Massa , W. and Chukanov , N.V. 2008 . Crystal structure of britvinite [Pb7(OH)3F(BO3)2(CO3)] [Mg4.5(OH)3(Si5O14)]: A new layered silicate with an original type of silicon‐oxygen networks . Crystallogr. Rep. , 53 : 206 – 215 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tessier , A. , Campbell , P.G.C. and Bisson , M. 1982 . Particulate trace metal speciation in stream sediments and relationship with grain size: Implications for geochemical exploration . J. Geochem. Explor. , 6 : 77 – 104 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLean , J.E. and Bledsoe , B.E. 1992 . Behavior of metals in soils, ground water issue , Washington, DC : United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response .
   Google Scholar
• Yong , R.N. , Warkentin , B.P. , Phadungchewit , Y. and Galvez , R. 1990 . Buffer capacity and lead retention in some clay materials . Water Air Soil Pollut. , 53 : 53 – 67 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yong , R.N. and Phadungchewit , Y. 1993 . pH influence on selectivity and retention of heavy metals in some clay soils . Can. Geotech. J. , 30 : 821 – 833 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mercier , G. , Chartier , M. and Couillard , D. 1996 . Strategies to maximize the microbial leaching of lead from metal‐contaminated aquatic sediments . Water Res. , 30 : 2452 – 2464 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nedwed , T. and Clifford , D.A. 2000 . Feasibility of extracting lead from lead battery recycling site soil using high concentration chloride solutions. . Environ. Prog. , 19 : 197 – 206 .
   Google Scholar
• Smith , R.M. and Martell , A.G. 1976 . Critical stability constants. Vol. 4: Inorganic Complexes , New York : Plenum Press .
   Google Scholar
• Shao , Y. 2008 . Atmospheric and Oceanographic Sciences Library. Vol. 37: Physics and Modelling of Wind Erosion, , 2nd ed. , Dordrecht : Springer‐Verlag .
   Google Scholar