647
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

Detecting allocentric and egocentric navigation deficits in patients with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder using virtual reality

ORCID Icon, , &
Pages 398-415 | Received 06 Jan 2017, Accepted 16 Aug 2017, Published online: 07 Sep 2017

References

  • Abrahams, S., Pickering, A., Polkey, C., & Morris, R. (1997). Spatial memory deficits in patients with unilateral damage to the right hippocampal formation. Neuropsychologia, 35, 11–24. doi: 10.1016/S0028-3932(96)00051-6
  • Addington, J., & Addington, D. (2002). Cognitive functioning in first-episode schizophrenia. Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience: JPN, 27, 188.
  • Agarwal, S. M., Danivas, V., Amaresha, A. C., Shivakumar, V., Kalmady, S. V., Bose, A., … Venkatasubramanian, G. (2015). Cognitive mapping deficits in schizophrenia: Evidence from clinical correlates of visuospatial transformations. Psychiatry Research, 228, 304–311. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2015.05.096
  • Aguirre, G. K., & D’esposito, M. (1997). Environmental knowledge is subserved by separable dorsal/ventral neural areas. The Journal of Neuroscience, 17, 2512–2518.
  • Andreasen, N. C. (2000). Schizophrenia: The fundamental questions. Brain Research Reviews, 31, 106–112. doi: 10.1016/S0165-0173(99)00027-2
  • Andreasen, N. C. (2010). The lifetime trajectory of schizophrenia and the concept of neurodevelopment. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 12, 409–415.
  • Ansari, N. N., Naghdi, S., Hasson, S., Valizadeh, L., & Jalaie, S. (2010). Validation of a mini-mental state examination (MMSE) for the Persian population: A pilot study. Applied Neuropsychology, 17, 190–195. doi: 10.1080/09084282.2010.499773
  • Arnold, S. E., Franz, B. R., Gur, R. C., Gur, R. E., Shapiro, R. M., Moberg, P. J., & Trojanowski, J. Q. (1995). Smaller neuron size in schizophrenia in hippocampal subfields that mediate cortical-hippocampal interactions. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 738–748. doi: 10.1176/ajp.152.5.738
  • Badcock, J. C., Michie, P. T., & Rock, D. (2005). Spatial working memory and planning ability: Contrasts between schizophrenia and bipolar i disorder. Cortex, 41, 753–763. doi: 10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70294-6
  • Barrett, S. L., Kelly, C., Bell, R., & King, D. J. (2008). Gender influences the detection of spatial working memory deficits in bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disorders, 10, 647–654. doi: 10.1111/j.1399-5618.2008.00592.x
  • Barry, C., Lever, C., Hayman, R., Hartley, T., Burton, S., O’Keefe, J., … Burgess, Ν. (2006). The boundary vector cell model of place cell firing and spatial memory. Reviews in the Neurosciences, 17, 71–97. doi: 10.1515/REVNEURO.2006.17.1-2.71
  • Benes, F. M., Sorensen, I., & Bird, E. D. (1991). Reduced neuronal size in posterior hippocampus of schizophrenic patients. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 17, 597–608. doi: 10.1093/schbul/17.4.597
  • Bogerts, B., Falkai, P., Haupts, M., Greve, B., Ernst, S., Tapernon-Franz, U., & Heinzmann, U. (1990). Post-mortem volume measurements of limbic system and basal ganglia structures in chronic schizophrenics: Initial results from a new brain collection. Schizophrenia Research, 3, 295–301. doi: 10.1016/0920-9964(90)90013-W
  • Bohbot, V. D., Iaria, G., & Petrides, M. (2004). Hippocampal function and spatial memory: Evidence from functional neuroimaging in healthy participants and performance of patients with medial temporal lobe resections. Neuropsychology, 18, 418–425. doi: 10.1037/0894-4105.18.3.418
  • Bohbot, V. D., Kalina, M., Stepankova, K., Spackova, N., Petrides, M., & Nadel, L. (1998). Spatial memory deficits in patients with lesions to the right hippocampus and to the right parahippocampal cortex. Neuropsychologia, 36, 1217–1238. doi: 10.1016/S0028-3932(97)00161-9
  • Bosia, M., Riccaboni, R., & Poletti, S. (2012). Neurofunctional correlates of theory of mind deficits in schizophrenia. Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry, 12, 2284–2302. doi: 10.2174/156802612805289917
  • Burgess, N., Maguire, E. A., & O’Keefe, J. (2002). The human hippocampus and spatial and episodic memory. Neuron, 35, 625–641. doi: 10.1016/S0896-6273(02)00830-9
  • Burgess, N., Maguire, E. A., Spiers, H. J., & O’Keefe, J. (2001). A temporoparietal and prefrontal network for retrieving the spatial context of lifelike events. Neuroimage, 14, 439–453. doi: 10.1006/nimg.2001.0806
  • Cannon, T. D., Huttunen, M. O., Lonnqvist, J., Tuulio-Henriksson, A., Pirkola, T., Glahn, D., … Koskenvuo, M. (2000). The inheritance of neuropsychological dysfunction in twins discordant for schizophrenia. The American Journal of Human Genetics, 67, 369–382. doi: 10.1086/303006
  • Cardno, A. G., Rijsdijk, F. V., Sham, P. C., Murray, R. M., & McGuffin, P. (2002). A twin study of genetic relationships between psychotic symptoms. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 539–545. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.159.4.539
  • Caspi, A., Reichenberg, A., Weiser, M., Rabinowitz, J., Kaplan, Z. E., Knobler, H., … Davidson, M. (2003). Cognitive performance in schizophrenia patients assessed before and following the first psychotic episode. Schizophrenia Research, 65, 87–94. doi: 10.1016/S0920-9964(03)00056-2
  • Clark, L., Iversen, S. D., & Goodwin, G. M. (2002). Sustained attention deficit in bipolar disorder. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 180, 313–319. doi: 10.1192/bjp.180.4.313
  • Decety, J., & Lamm, C. (2007). The role of the right temporoparietal junction in social interaction: How low-level computational processes contribute to meta-cognition. The Neuroscientist, 13, 580–593. doi: 10.1177/1073858407304654
  • Eastvold, A., Heaton, R., & Cadenhead, K. (2007). Neurocognitive deficits in the (putative) prodrome and first episode of psychosis. Schizophrenia Research, 93, 266–277. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2007.03.013
  • Ekstrom, A. D., Kahana, M. J., Caplan, J. B., Fields, T. A., Isham, E. A., Newman, E. L., & Fried, I. (2003). Cellular networks underlying human spatial navigation. Nature, 425, 184–188. doi: 10.1038/nature01964
  • El-Badri, S. M., Ashton, C. H., Moore, P. B., Marsh, V. R., & Ferrier, I. N. (2001). Electrophysiological and cognitive function in young euthymic patients with bipolar affective disorder. Bipolar Disorders, 3, 79–87. doi: 10.1034/j.1399-5618.2001.030206.x
  • Epstein, R., Graham, K. S., & Downing, P. E. (2003). Viewpoint-specific scene representations in human parahippocampal cortex. Neuron, 37, 865–876. doi: 10.1016/S0896-6273(03)00117-X
  • Erlenmeyer-Kimling, L., Adamo, U. H., Rock, D., Roberts, S. A., Bassett, A. S., Squires-Wheeler, E., … Gottesman, II. (1997). The New York high-risk project: Prevalence and comorbidity of axis I disorders in offspring of schizophrenic parents at 25-year follow-up. Archives of General Psychiatry, 54, 1096–1102. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1997.01830240052008
  • Etchamendy, N., & Bohbot, V. D. (2007). Spontaneous navigational strategies and performance in the virtual town. Hippocampus, 17, 595–599. doi: 10.1002/hipo.20303
  • Ferrier, I., Stanton, B. R., Kelly, T., & Scott, J. (1999). Neuropsychological function in euthymic patients with bipolar disorder. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 175, 246–251. doi: 10.1192/bjp.175.3.246
  • Fioravanti, M., Bianchi, V., & Cinti, M. E. (2012). Cognitive deficits in schizophrenia: An updated metanalysis of the scientific evidence. BMC Psychiatry, 12, 426. doi: 10.1186/1471-244X-12-64
  • Fleming, K., Goldberg, T. E., Binks, S., Randolph, C., Gold, J. M., & Weinberger, D. R. (1997). Visuospatial working memory in patients with schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 41, 43–49. doi: 10.1016/S0006-3223(96)00263-6
  • Fleming, K., Goldberg, T. E., Gold, J. M., & Weinberger, D. R. (1995). Verbal working memory dysfunction in schizophrenia: Use of a Brown-Peterson paradigm. Psychiatry Research, 56, 155–161. doi: 10.1016/0165-1781(95)02589-3
  • Folley, B. S., Astur, R., Jagannathan, K., Calhoun, V. D., & Pearlson, G. D. (2010). Anomalous neural circuit function in schizophrenia during a virtual Morris water task. Neuroimage, 49, 3373–3384. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.11.034
  • Frith, C. (2005). The neural basis of hallucinations and delusions. Comptes Rendus Biologies, 328, 169–175. doi: 10.1016/j.crvi.2004.10.012
  • Frith, C. D., Blakemore, S.-J., & Wolpert, D. M. (2000). Explaining the symptoms of schizophrenia: Abnormalities in the awareness of action. Brain Research Reviews, 31, 357–363. doi: 10.1016/S0165-0173(99)00052-1
  • Geuze, E., Vermetten, E., & Bremner, J. (2005). MR-based in vivo hippocampal volumetrics: 2. Findings in neuropsychiatric disorders. Molecular Psychiatry, 10, 160–184. doi: 10.1038/sj.mp.4001579
  • Goldman-Rakic, P. S. (1995). Architecture of the prefrontal cortex and the central executive. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 769, 71–84. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1995.tb38132.x
  • Gooding, D. C., & Tallent, K. A. (2001). The association between antisaccade task and working memory task performance in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 189, 8–16. doi: 10.1097/00005053-200101000-00003
  • Gould, N. F., Kathleen Holmes, B. M., Fantie, B. D., Luckenbaugh, D. A., Pine, D. S., Gould, T. D., … Zarate, C. A. (2007). Performance on a virtual reality spatial memory navigation task in depressed patients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 516–519. doi: 10.1176/ajp.2007.164.3.516
  • Green, M. F. (1996). What are the functional consequences of neurocognitive deficits in schizophrenia? American Journal of Psychiatry, 153, 321–330. doi: 10.1176/ajp.153.3.321
  • Griffin, S., Pickar, D., & Kleinman, J. E. (1993). Contrasts between patients with affective disorders and patients with schizophrenia on a neuropsychological test battery. American Journal of Psychiatry, 1, 1355.
  • Habib, M., & Sirigu, A. (1987). Pure topographical disorientation: A definition and anatomical basis. Cortex, 23, 73–85. doi: 10.1016/S0010-9452(87)80020-5
  • Hanlon, F. M., Weisend, M. P., Hamilton, D. A., Jones, A. P., Thoma, R. J., Huang, M., … Cañive, J. M. (2006). Impairment on the hippocampal-dependent virtual Morris water task in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 87, 67–80. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2006.05.021
  • Hill, S. K., Schuepbach, D., Herbener, E. S., Keshavan, M. S., & Sweeney, J. A. (2004). Pretreatment and longitudinal studies of neuropsychological deficits in antipsychotic-naıve patients with schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 68, 49–63. doi: 10.1016/S0920-9964(03)00213-5
  • Honea, R., Crow, T. J., Passingham, D., & Mackay, C. E. (2005). Regional deficits in brain volume in schizophrenia: A meta-analysis of voxel-based morphometry studies. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 2233–2245. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.162.12.2233
  • Iacoboni, M., & Dapretto, M. (2006). The mirror neuron system and the consequences of its dysfunction. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 7, 942–951. doi: 10.1038/nrn2024
  • Iaria, G., Petrides, M., Dagher, A., Pike, B., & Bohbot, V. D. (2003). Cognitive strategies dependent on the hippocampus and caudate nucleus in human navigation: Variability and change with practice. The Journal of Neuroscience, 23, 5945–5952.
  • Jafari, Z., Steffen Moritz, P., Zandi, T., Aliakbari Kamrani, A., & Malyeri, S. (2010). Psychometric properties of Persian version of the Rey Auditory-Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT) among the elderly. Iranian Journal of Psychiatry and Clinical Psychology, 16, 56–64.
  • Kantrowitz, J., & Javitt, D. C. (2012). Glutamatergic transmission in schizophrenia: From basic research to clinical practice. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 25, 96–102.
  • Kassebaum, N. J., Arora, M., Barber, R. M., Bhutta, Z. A., Brown, J., Carter, A., … Murray, C. J. L. (2016). Global, regional, and national disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) for 315 diseases and injuries and healthy life expectancy (HALE), 1990–2015: A systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2015. The Lancet, 388, 1603–1658. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31460-X
  • Kendler, K. S., Gruenberg, A. M., & Tsuang, M. T. (1985). Psychiatric illness in first-degree relatives of schizophrenic and surgical control patients. Archives of General Psychiatry, 42, 770–779. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1985.01790310032004
  • Keshavan, M. S., Tandon, R., Boutros, N. N., & Nasrallah, H. A. (2008). Schizophrenia, “just the facts”: What we know in 2008: Part 3: Neurobiology. Schizophrenia Research, 106, 89–107. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2008.07.020
  • Kieseppä, T., Tuulio-Henriksson, A., Haukka, J., Van Erp, T., Glahn, D., Cannon, T. D., … Lönnqvist, J. (1999). Memory and verbal learning functions in twins with bipolar-I disorder, and the role of information-processing speed. Psychological Medicine, 35, 205–215. doi: 10.1017/S0033291704003125
  • Kim, J., Glahn, D. C., Nuechterlein, K. H., & Cannon, T. D. (2004). Maintenance and manipulation of information in schizophrenia: Further evidence for impairment in the central executive component of working memory. Schizophrenia Research, 68, 173–187. doi: 10.1016/S0920-9964(03)00150-6
  • Krabhendam, L., & Honig, A. (2000). Cognitive dysfunctions and white matter lesions in patients with bipolar. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 101, 274–280.
  • Kumaran, D., & Maguire, E. A. (2005). The human hippocampus: Cognitive maps or relational memory? Journal of Neuroscience, 25, 7254–7259. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1103-05.2005
  • Landgraf, S., Krebs, M.-O., Olié, J.-P., Committeri, G., Van Der Meer, E., Berthoz, A., … Amado, I. (2010). Real world referencing and schizophrenia: Are we experiencing the same reality? Neuropsychologia, 48, 2922–2930. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.05.034
  • Maguire, E. A., Burke, T., Phillips, J., & Staunton, H. (1996). Topographical disorientation following unilateral temporal lobe lesions in humans. Neuropsychologia, 34, 993–1001. doi: 10.1016/0028-3932(96)00022-X
  • Maguire, E. A., & Frith, C. D. (2004). The brain network associated with acquiring semantic knowledge. Neuroimage, 22, 171–178. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.12.036
  • Martínez-Arán, A., Vieta, E., Reinares, M., Colom, F., Torrent, C., Sánchez-Moreno, J., … Salamero, M. (2004). Cognitive function across manic or hypomanic, depressed, and euthymic states in bipolar disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 262–270. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.161.2.262
  • McGrath, J., Chapple, B., & Wright, M. (2001). Working memory in schizophrenia and mania: Correlation with symptoms during the acute and subacute phases. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 103, 181–188. doi: 10.1034/j.1600-0447.2001.00114.x
  • Merikangas, K. R., Chakravarti, A., Moldin, S. O., Araj, H., Blangero, J., Burmeister, M., … Takahashi, J. S. (2002). Future of genetics of mood disorders research. Biological Psychiatry, 52, 457–477. doi: 10.1016/S0006-3223(02)01471-3
  • Mesholam-Gately, R. I., Giuliano, A. J., Goff, K. P., Faraone, S. V., & Seidman, L. J. (2009). Neurocognition in first-episode schizophrenia: A meta-analytic review. Neuropsychology, 23, 315–336. doi: 10.1037/a0014708
  • Meyers, J. E., & Meyers, K. R. (1995). Rey complex figure test under four different administration procedures. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 9, 63–67. doi: 10.1080/13854049508402059
  • Moskvina, V., Craddock, N., Holmans, P., Nikolov, I., Pahwa, J. S., Green, E., … O’Donovan, M. C. (2009). Gene-wide analyses of genome-wide association data sets: Evidence for multiple common risk alleles for schizophrenia and bipolar disorder and for overlap in genetic risk. Molecular Psychiatry, 14, 252–260. doi: 10.1038/mp.2008.133
  • Mueser, K. T. (2000). Cognitive functioning, social adjustment and long term outcome in schizophrenia. In T. Sharma & P. Harvey (Eds.), Cognition in schizophrenia: Impairments, importance and treatment strategies (pp. 157–177). New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Nelson, M. D., Saykin, A. J., Flashman, L. A., & Riordan, H. J. (1998). Hippocampal volume reduction in schizophrenia as assessed by magnetic resonance imaging: A meta-analytic study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55, 433–440. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.55.5.433
  • Noori-Daloii, M., Shahbazi, A., Alizadeh Zendehrood, S., Shayan Nia, A., Mojarrad, M., Kheirollahi, M., … Mohammadi, A. (2015). Knocking down the DRD2 by shRNA expressing plasmids in the nucleus accumbens prevented the disrupting effect of apomorphine on prepulse inhibition in rat. Journal of Sciences, Islamic Republic of Iran, 26, 205–212.
  • O’Keefe, J., & Nadel, L. (1979). The hippocampus as a cognitive map. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 2, 487–494. doi: 10.1017/S0140525X00063949
  • Packard, M. G., Hirsh, R., & White, N. M. (1989). Differential effects of fornix and caudate nucleus lesions on two radial maze tasks: Evidence for multiple memory systems. The Journal of Neuroscience, 9, 1465–1472.
  • Park, S. (1997). Association of an oculomotor delayed response task and the Wisconsin card sort test in schizophrenic patients. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 27, 147–151. doi: 10.1016/S0167-8760(97)00045-7
  • Park, S., & Holzman, P. S. (1992). Schizophrenics show spatial working memory deficits. Archives of General Psychiatry, 49, 975–982. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1992.01820120063009
  • Park, S., & Holzman, P. S. (1993). Association of working memory deficit and eye tracking dysfunction in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 11, 55–61. doi: 10.1016/0920-9964(93)90038-K
  • Pigott, S., & Milner, B. (1993). Memory for different aspects of complex visual scenes after unilateral temporal- or frontal-lobe resection. Neuropsychologia, 31, 1–15. doi: 10.1016/0028-3932(93)90076-C
  • Piper, M., Beneyto, M., Burne, T. H., Eyles, D. W., Lewis, D. A., & McGrath, J. J. (2012). The neurodevelopmental hypothesis of schizophrenia: Convergent clues from epidemiology and neuropathology. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 35, 571–584. doi: 10.1016/j.psc.2012.06.002
  • Pirkola, T., Tuulio-Henriksson, A., Glahn, D., Kieseppä, T., Haukka, J., Kaprio, J., … Cannon, T. D. (2005). Spatial working memory function in twins with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 58, 930–936. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.05.041
  • Potash, J. B., Willour, V. L., Chiu, Y.-F., Simpson, S. G., Mackinnon, D. F., Pearlson, G. D., … McInnis, M. G. (2001). The familial aggregation of psychotic symptoms in bipolar disorder pedigrees. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 1258–1264. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.158.8.1258
  • Rolls, E. T. (1999). Spatial view cells and the representation of place in the primate hippocampus. Hippocampus, 9, 467–480. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1098-1063(1999)9:4<467::AID-HIPO13>3.0.CO;2-F
  • Rolls, E. T., & Xiang, J.-Z. (2006). Spatial view cells in the primate hippocampus and memory recall. Reviews in the Neurosciences, 17, 175–200. doi: 10.1515/REVNEURO.2006.17.1-2.175
  • Rubinsztein, J., Michael, A., Paykel, E., & Sahakian, B. (2000). Cognitive impairment in remission in bipolar affective disorder. Psychological Medicine, 30, 1025–1036. doi: 10.1017/S0033291799002664
  • Rund, B. R., Melle, I., Friis, S., Johannessen, J. O., Larsen, T. K., Midbøe, L. J., … McGlashan, T. (2007). The course of neurocognitive functioning in first-episode psychosis and its relation to premorbid adjustment, duration of untreated psychosis, and relapse. Schizophrenia Research, 91, 132–140. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2006.11.030
  • Rund, B. R., Melle, I., Friis, S., Larsen, T. K., Midbøe, L. J., Opjordsmoen, S., … McGlashan, T. (2004). Neurocognitive dysfunction in first-episode psychosis: Correlates with symptoms, premorbid adjustment, and duration of untreated psychosis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 466–472. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.161.3.466
  • Seidman, L. J., Kremen, W. S., Koren, D., Faraone, S. V., Goldstein, J. M., & Tsuang, M. T. (2002). A comparative profile analysis of neuropsychological functioning in patients with schizophrenia and bipolar psychoses. Schizophrenia Research, 53, 31–44. doi: 10.1016/S0920-9964(01)00162-1
  • Shelton, A. L., & Gabrieli, J. D. (2002). Neural correlates of encoding space from route and survey perspectives. The Journal of Neuroscience, 22, 2711–2717.
  • Shenton, M. E., Gerig, G., McCarley, R. W., Szekely, G., & Kikinis, R. (2002). Amygdala–hippocampal shape differences in schizophrenia: The application of 3D shape models to volumetric MR data. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 115, 15–35. doi: 10.1016/S0925-4927(02)00025-2
  • Siemerkus, J., Irle, E., Schmidt-Samoa, C., Dechent, P., & Weniger, G. (2012). Egocentric spatial learning in schizophrenia investigated with functional magnetic resonance imaging. NeuroImage: Clinical, 1, 153–163. doi: 10.1016/j.nicl.2012.10.004
  • Spiers, H. J., Burgess, N., Maguire, E. A., Baxendale, S. A., Hartley, T., Thompson, P. J., & O’Keefe, J. (2001). Unilateral temporal lobectomy patients show lateralized topographical and episodic memory deficits in a virtual town. Brain, 124, 2476–2489. doi: 10.1093/brain/124.12.2476
  • Strakowski, S., Delbello, M., & Adler, C. (2005). The functional neuroanatomy of bipolar disorder: A review of neuroimaging findings. Molecular Psychiatry, 10, 105–116. doi: 10.1038/sj.mp.4001585
  • Sweeney, J. A., Kmiec, J. A., & Kupfer, D. J. (2000). Neuropsychologic impairments in bipolar and unipolar mood disorders on the CANTAB neurocognitive battery. Biological Psychiatry, 48, 674–684. doi: 10.1016/S0006-3223(00)00910-0
  • Thakkar, K. N., & Park, S. (2010). Empathy, schizotypy, and visuospatial transformations. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 15, 477–500. doi: 10.1080/13546801003711350
  • Torrey, E. F. (2007). Schizophrenia and the inferior parietal lobule. Schizophrenia Research, 97, 215–225. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2007.08.023
  • Townsend, L. A., Malla, A. K., & Norman, R. M. (2001). Cognitive functioning in stabilized first-episode psychosis patients. Psychiatry Research, 104, 119–131. doi: 10.1016/S0165-1781(01)00302-X
  • Townsend, L. A., & Norman, R. M. (2004). Course of cognitive functioning in first episode schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics, 4, 61–68. doi: 10.1586/14737175.4.1.61
  • Van Os, J., & Kapur, S. (2009). Schizophrenia. The Lancet, 374, 635–645. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60995-8
  • Vos, T., Allen, C., Arora, M., Barber, R. M., Bhutta, Z. A., Brown, A., … Murray, C. J. L. (2016). Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 310 diseases and injuries, 1990–2015: A systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2015. The Lancet, 388, 1545–1602. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31678-6
  • Wang, H., Naghavi, M., Allen, C., Barber, R. M., Bhutta, Z. A., Carter, A. … Murray, C. J. L. (2016). Global, regional, and national life expectancy, all-cause mortality, and cause-specific mortality for 249 causes of death, 1980–2015: A systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2015. The Lancet, 388, 1459–1544. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31012-1
  • Weiss, A. P., Dewitt, I., Goff, D., Ditman, T., & Heckers, S. (2005). Anterior and posterior hippocampal volumes in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 73, 103–112. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2004.05.018
  • Weniger, G., & Irle, E. (2006). Posterior parahippocampal gyrus lesions in the human impair egocentric learning in a virtual environment. European Journal of Neuroscience, 24, 2406–2414. doi: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2006.05108.x
  • Weniger, G., & Irle, E. (2008). Allocentric memory impaired and egocentric memory intact as assessed by virtual reality in recent-onset schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 101, 201–209. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2008.01.011
  • Wilkins, L. K., Girard, T. A., Konishi, K., King, M., Herdman, K. A., King, J., … Bohbot, V. D. (2013). Selective deficit in spatial memory strategies contrast to intact response strategies in patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders tested in a virtual navigation task. Hippocampus, 23, 1015–1024. doi: 10.1002/hipo.22189
  • Wright, I. C., Rabe-Hesketh, S., Woodruff, P. W., David, A. S., Murray, R. M., & Bullmore, E. T. (2000). Meta-analysis of regional brain volumes in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 16–25. doi: 10.1176/ajp.157.1.16
  • Zaidel, D. W., Esiri, M. M., & Harrison, P. J. (1997). Size, shape, and orientation of neurons in the left and right hippocampus: Investigation of normal asymmetries and alterations in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 812–818. doi: 10.1176/ajp.154.6.812
  • Zedkova, L., Woodward, N. D., Harding, I., Tibbo, P. G., & Purdon, S. E. (2006). Procedural learning in schizophrenia investigated with functional magnetic resonance imaging. Schizophrenia Research, 88, 198–207. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2006.06.039
  • Zhang, H., & Ekstrom, A. (2013). Human neural systems underlying rigid and flexible forms of allocentric spatial representation. Human Brain Mapping, 34, 1070–1087. doi: 10.1002/hbm.21494
  • Zhang, Q., Shen, Q., Xu, Z., Chen, M., Cheng, L., Zhai, J., … Chen, C. (2012). The effects of CACNA1C gene polymorphism on spatial working memory in both healthy controls and patients with schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology, 37, 677–684. doi: 10.1038/npp.2011.242

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.